Place of Korean Buddhist Thought and History By Eun-su Cho 조은수

Place of Korean Buddhist Thought and History

By Eun-su Cho (Seoul National University, Dept. of Philosophy)

Prepared for Kyujanggak Korean Studies Summer Workshop, 2020.07.23

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1. Definition and Scope

■ The Development of Buddhism in Korea – A Focus on Doctrinal Aspects

■ Korean Buddhism should be understood in the context of the East Asian Buddhism: “There was almost organic relationship between the Korean, Chinese, and, during its incipient periond, the Japanese Buddhist traditions. . . . Admittedly, the Silk Route afforded China closer ties with the Buddhism of India and Central Asia, and China’s overwhelming size, both in territory and population, inevitably led to its domination of the doctrinal trends within East Asian Buddhism.

This does not deny, however, that Korean exegetes working on both the peninsula and the Chinese mainland made seminal contribution to the develoment of what are commonly considered to be distinctively “Chinese” schools of Buddhism, such as T’ien-t’ai, Hua-yen, and Ch’an. At the same time, many Chinese Buddhist theological insights were molded into new forms in Korea, innovations comparable to the Chinese syntheses of Indian and Central Asian Buddhist teachings. Hence, any appraisal of characteristically East Asian developments in the Buddhist tradition cannot neglect to take into account the contributions made by Koreans” - from Robert Buswell, Chan Ideology in China and Korea

2. History of Korean Buddhism

(1) Buddhism’s Introduction during the Three Kingdoms Period 三國時代 (2 century BCE - 670)

■ Buddhism was introduced to Korea in the fourth century, when the existing communal clancentric societies were transitioning to confederated kingdoms that required a new system of

world-belief to lead the new society. Old shamanistic or ancestral beliefs could not support the

rapid societal changes any more. With the introduction of higher religion, a new understanding

of the complexity of (the conditions and conflicts of) human life and society was made possible,

providing a spiritual ground for the establishment of the pan-state ethics and beliefs. The

introduction of Buddhism also meant the introduction of elements of civilization such as music,

art, architecture, and medicine, not merely doctrine and rituals. By introducing the Indian and

Central Asian cultures as well as the Sinitic culture, the spread of Buddhism absolutely

contributed to the establishment of the ancient states.

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- Koguryŏ 高句麗: 372 CE, Introduction of Buddhism in Korea by a monk sent by the King of

the Former Ch’in dynasty to the Koguryŏ court with scriptures and images (symbiotic

relationship between ecclesia & state, Maitreya worship, Mahayana scripture study).

- Paekche 百濟: 384, Serindian monk Maranant’a from Eastern Chin introduced Buddhism to

the royal court. Vinaya study flourished. Culture and Buddhism disseminated through sea routes.

Dispatched Buddhist doctrinal specialists, psalmodists, iconographers and architects to Japan.

- Silla 新羅: 529, Ich’adon’s martyrdom; Silla nobility found strong incentive to embrace

Buddhism in an effort to accommodate the newly conquered Koguryŏ and Paekche aristocracy

which had already embraced Buddhism long before. State-protected and sponsored Buddhism.

(2) Buddhism in Unified Silla 統一新羅 (670-935)

■ Korean peninsula unified by Silla. It was during this period that the major schools of scholastic

Buddhism that had developed in China were introduced to Korea, and those that were already

imported were consolidated. It is recorded that there existed five major schools of Buddhism: the

Yogacāra, Hwaŏm, Dharma Nature, Mahāparinirvāna, and Vinaya schools. Such important

scholar-monks like Wŏnhyo and Ŭisang created the foundations of the Korean approach to

Buddhist philosophy. Sŏn (Ch’an) was introduced this period. Eminent monks: Wŏnch’ŭk (613-

696), Wŏnhyo (617-686), Ŭisang (625-702)

(3) Buddhism in Koryŏ dynasty 高麗 (935 -1392)

■ Buddhist state: a period when the aristocratic order was combined with powerful monks.

Eminent monks: Ŭich’ŏn (1055-1101), Chinul (1158-1210), and Pou (1301-1382)

(4) Buddhism in Chosŏn 朝鮮 dynasty (1392 -1910)

■ Confucian state. At the beginning of the dynasty, the court privately supported the religion.

Within two centuries, the court had enacted strict selection procedures for monks, limits on the

number of temples, a reduction in the number of the sects, reorganized and confiscated temple

land, and servants were drafted into the army. All scholastic sects merged into a single school of

Kyo and the other Sŏn sects merged into a single school of Sŏn. Sŏsan Hyujŏng 西山休靜

(1520-1604) wrote the Sŏn’gagwigam.

3. Eminent Monks of Korea

(1) Wŏnch’ŭk 圓測 (613-696)

A close disciple of Hsüan-tsang, wrote commentaries on the Samdhinirmocana sutra. For further information, see Eun-su Cho, “Wŏnch’ŭk’s Place in the East Asian Buddhist Tradition,” in Currents and Countercurrents: Korean Influences on the East Asian Buddhist Traditions, edited by Robert E. Buswell (University of Hawaii Press, 2005), pp. 173-216.

(2) Wŏnhyo 元曉 (617-686)

- Prolific writer

- Dramatic life

- Became the source of contemporary discourse on Hwoet’ong or t’ong pulgyo ideology as a recurring reference in the works of Korean Buddhist thinkers in modern Korea 

- Eun-su Cho’s entry of “Wŏnhyo” in Encyclopedia of Buddhism (NY: Macmillan Publishing Company, December 2003) as followings:

“Wŏnhyo (Break of Dawn, 617–686) is widely considered to be the most influential thinker, writer, and commentator in Korean Buddhist history. Arguably the first major contributor to the development of an indigenous approach to Korean Buddhist doctrine and practice, Wŏnhyo wrote over eighty treatises and commentaries on virtually every influential Mahāyāna scripture then available in Korea, of which over twenty are extant. Reflecting the dynamic cultural exchanges and flourishing doctrinal scholarship and meditative practice occurring within East Asian Buddhism during his time, Wŏnhyo’s scholarship embraced the full spectrum of East Asian Buddhism, from the Mahāyāna precepts to the emblematic teachings of Madhyamaka, Yogācāra, Tiantai, Pure Land, Nirvāṇa, Tathāgatagarbha, and Huayan. Wŏnhyo’s writings were disseminated throughout East Asia and made important contributions to the development of Buddhist doctrinal exegesis.

Wŏnhyo’s life has fascinated readers even in modern times and his biography has been the subject of novels, film, and television drama in Korea. Spending the early part of his career as a monk in Korea, Wŏnhyo made two attempts to travel to Tang China (618–907) with his life-long friend Ŭisang (625–702) to study under Xuanzang (ca. 600–664), a Chinese scholar-pilgrim who was the most respected doctrinal teacher of his time. On the second attempt, Wŏnhyo’s biographies state

that he had an enlightenment experience that was intimately related to the mind-only theory of the Yogācāra school. The accounts vary, but they all revolve around Wŏnhyo having a revelation after falling asleep one evening during his travels. In the most drastic version, recorded in a later Chan hagiographical collection, Wŏnhyo takes refuge from a storm in a sanctuary, but awakens thirsty in the middle of the night and looks in the dark for water. Finding a bowl of water, he drinks it and, satisfied, goes back to sleep. The next morning after he awakens, he finds to his disgust that the place where he had slept was in fact a crypt and what he had taken to be a bowl of water was actually offal in a human skull. Realizing that what he thought was thirst-quenching the night before was disgusting now, he reveled, “I heard that the Buddha said the three worlds are mind-only and everything is consciousness-only. Thus beauty and unwholesomeness depend on my mind, not on the water.” The narrative power of this story helped shape East Asian images of enlightenment as a dramatic awakening experience. After this experience Wŏnhyo turned back from his journey, proclaiming that there was no need to search for truth outside one’s mind. His friend Ŭisang, however, continued on to China, later returning home to found the Korean branch of the Huayan school (Korean, Hwaŏm).

Wŏnhyo’s later affair with a widowed princess produced a son, Sŏl Ch’ong (d.u.), one of the most famous literati in Korean history, and helped to seal his reputation as someone who transcended such conventional distinctions as secular and sacred. After an illustrious career as a writer and Buddhist thinker, Wŏnhyo lived primarily as a mendicant, wandering the cities and markets as a street proselytizer. As his biography in the Samguk yusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms) states, “He used to . . . sing and dance his way through thousands of villages and myriad hamlets, touring while proselytizing in song. Thus, everyone in the country came to recognize the name ‘Buddha’ and recite ‘Homage to Buddha.’” This same source relates that Wŏnhyo died in a hermitage in March 686, leaving no direct disciples. The Samguk sagi (Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms) also notes that he died as a householder (kŏsa), a male lay Buddhist.

Wŏnhyo’s thought system is structured around the concept of “one mind,” as illustrated in his commentaries to the Awakening of Faith (Dasheng qixin lun). One mind is another word for the mind of sentient beings, which is intrinsically pure and unchanging, but appears externally to be impure and ephemeral. Even though every deluded thought arises from the mind, at the same time, it is that mind itself that provides the capacity to achieve enlightenment. Wŏnhyo outlines a threefold structure for experiencing enlightenment: original enlightenment, non-enlightenment, and actualizing enlightenment, which are mutually contingent and mutually defining. Original enlightenment provides the theoretical basis for enlightenment; non-enlightenment is the misconception about the nature of original enlightenment; and actualizing enlightenment is the incitement to practice. Practice here is based on the conditional definition of non-nlightenment, that is, the insubstantiality of defilements. Practice, therefore, does not really involve removing something; it instead is correct knowledge that the defilements we experience in daily life are unreal. The distinction Wŏnhyo draws between original and non- enlightenments, and the attempts he makes to integrate the two, set the stage for notions of the universality of buddhahood in later East Asian Buddhism. The Awakening of Faith itself originally provided the conceptual frame for this notion, but it was Wŏnhyo’s elaboration in his commentary to that treatise that provided a more coherent interpretation of this construct and proposed a solution to the tensions inherent in the definition of enlightenment in Buddhist history. This elaboration helped to establish a unique cognitive framework for East Asian Buddhism, and made Wŏnhyo’s commentary one of the most influential texts in the East Asian Buddhist tradition.”

(3) Ŭisang 義湘 (625-702)

Studied in China under the guidance of Chi-yen, the second patriarch of the Hua-yen school. Wrote

The diagram of the Dharma Realm of the One Vehicle of Hwaŏm. He summarizes the elaborate

doctrinal theories of the Hwaŏm school in a simple and compact diagram of verses, consisting of

210 Chinese characters.

(4) Ŭich’ŏn 義天 (1055-1101)’s effort for reconciliating Sŏn and Kyo; He viewed Ch’ŏnt’ae as the ideal vehicle to accommodate the varying concerns of Sŏn and Kyo.

(5) Pojo Chinul 普照知訥 (1158-1210)

■ The Chinese tradition of Ch’an is preserved, transmitted and revived at least in Korea through writings by Chinul

■ Emphasized the importance of both doctrinal study and meditation practice, having studied Hwaeom Buddhist theory while practicing Sŏn Buddhism. He never studied formally under a Sŏn master nor received transmission from a recognized teacher. He was eager to find any spiritual guidance in the sutras, commentaries, and records of Sŏn masters as the only authentic sources available to him. His accommodating attitude toward the scholastic schools and the

eclecticism that developed from his independent study were likely the result of borrowing whatever helpful hints from the teachings of the Buddhist scriptures.

■ Chinul regarded sudden awakening and gradual cultivation as the most plausible choice for all Buddhist aspirants, believed in the simultaneous practice of concentration and wisdom. He outlined three stages of the process:

i. initial intellectual awakening: awakened to the fact that s/he is already a Buddha (faith)

ii. stages of gradual cultivation: initial awakening continuously refined and past defilements removed

iii. gradual cultivation finally culminating in full-fledged realization and awakening

(. . . . Reading the Platform Sutra, Li Tung-hsuan’s commentary of the Hua-yen Sutra, I had not yet forsaken passion and view - it was as if my chest was blocked by something, or as if I were dwelling together with an enemy... I went to Chiri mountain and found a passage in the Record of the Ch’an master Ta-hui: “Ch’an does not consist in quietude nor in a bustle. It does

not involve the activities of life nor logical discrimination. Nevertheless, it is of first importance not to investigate Ch’an while rejecting quietude or bustle. . . If your eyes suddenly open, then Ch’an is something which exists inside your home.” I understood this passage. Naturally nothing blocked my chest again. From then on I was at peace. . . .)

■ - Adopted hwadu (critical phrase) Sŏn meditation practice developed by Ta-hui Tsung-kao of

Sung China

- Adopted “sudden awakening and gradual cultivation” practice method taught by Tsung-mi

- Adopted Huayen Buddhist doctrine (of Li Tung-hsuan’s Chinese Huayen Buddhist theory) as

a theoretical foundation for his Sŏn teaching

■ Reform movement - To form a retreat society (Meditation and Wisdom society, or Chŏnghye

kyŏlsa)

(6) T’aego Pou 太古普愚 (1301-1382): Lin-chi lineage, into which he received transmission in

the Yuan dynasty (See contemporary controversies over the orthodoxy of Chogye lineage)

4. History of Study

(1) Beginning

■ Modern scholarship on Korean Buddhism began during 1920s, and accelerated by the Japanese

Buddhist interest on Buddhism, and Korean ancient history.

■ First research books on Korean Buddhist history

- Kwŏn Sang-ro 權相老, 『朝鮮佛敎略史』(新文館, 1917).

최초의 한국불교역사서, 국한문혼용.

- Yi Nŭng-hwa 李能和, 『朝鮮佛敎通史』 (新文館, 1918) 국한문혼용.

- Takahashi Tōru 高橋亨, 『李朝佛敎』 (寶文館, 1929) in Japanese language.

- Nukariya Kaiten 忽滑谷快天, 朝鮮禪敎史』 (東京: 春秋社, 1930) in Japanese language

■ For colonial scholarship on Korean Buddhism, see Eunsu Cho, “Creating a Korean

Philosophical Tradition: Pak Chong-hong and the Discomfiting Indispensability of European Thought,” The Review of Korean Studies, Vol. 5, No. 2 (December 2002): 163-193

.

(2) After 1945

5. Current Issues and Controversies in Korean Buddhist scholarship

(1) Sudden or Gradual debate in contemporary Korean Buddhist society

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■ Ex-patriarch of the Chogye order, Seongcheol challenged the long held tradition of Jinul’s approach to Buddhism as heretical, claiming that only the “sudden-awakening and suddencultivation” method of hwadu investigation was the orthodox practice of Sŏn Buddhism.

(2) Theories on the characteristics of Korean Buddhism

■ Contemporary Buddhist scholarship in Korea made attempts to promote its uniqueness in terms of its history and development. The effort to define the distinctive features characterizing Korean Buddhism was first undertaken as a part of a nationalist agenda in the beginning of the 20th century, when Korea was under the Japanese colonization, and was fervently elaborated upon in the 1970s.

■ Hoguk Pulgyo (Buddhism of Nation-Protection) and T’ong Pulgyo have been the two most conspicuous discourses that have emerged in modern Buddhist scholarship.

■ Please see, Eun-su Cho, “The Uses and Abuses of Wŏnhyo and the “T’ong Pulgyo” Narrative” Journal of Korean Studies 9 (Fall 2004), from your Coursepack, Part II.

(3) The Korean Tripitaka

■ The Koryŏ Daejanggyŏng (Koryŏ dynasty Tripitaka), known as the “Tripitaka Koreana” to the

modern scholarly world, is a Korean collection of the Tripitaka (Buddhist scriptures). Carved

onto 81,258 wooden printing blocks in the 13th century under the commission of the Koryŏ

dynasty of Korea (918-1392 CE), it is currently stored at Haeinsa Monastery in the southwest of

the Korean peninsula. It is often called the Palman Daejanggyŏng ("Eighty-thousand Tripitaka")

due to the number of the printing plates that comprise it.

■ The Tripitaka (in Sanskrit, meaning "Three Baskets"), or Taejanggyŏng in Korean, refers to

the collection of Buddhist scriptures, or Buddhist canon, that relate to discourses with the

Buddha (Sutta-pitaka), regulations of monastic life (Vinaya-pitaka), and commentaries on the

sutras by renowned monks and scholars (Abhidhamma-pitaka). When Buddhism was transmitted

to East Asia through China, and the Buddhist scriptures translated from various Indian and

Central Asian languages to classical Chinese (the lingua franca of educated discourse throughout

East Asia, including Korea), there were several attempts by several countries to inscribe them in

wooden printing blocks for distribution. However, the Tripitaka Koreana is the only complete

canon still extant on the mainland of Asia.

■ Though the Tripitaka Koreana was a task commissioned by the Koryŏ dynasty to produce an

edition of the Tripitaka in wooden printing blocks, there were also individual woodblocks of 

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miscellaneous Buddhist scriptures commissioned directly by Haeinsa Monastery. With years of

scribing dating from 1098 to 1958, there are 5,987 miscellaneous woodblocks that have been

created and stored at Haeinsa Monastery. These miscellaneous scripture woodblocks, some of

which are the only extant copy in the world, were created to supplement the Tripitaka.

■ The woodblocks of the Tripitaka Koreana and miscellaneous scriptures possess high cultural

value as an example of the best printing and publishing techniques of the period. Each block was

systematically and meticulously prepared individually and beautifully inscribed with a great

degree of regularity. Their excellent durability has been proven well, as the printing blocks can

even now print crisp, complete copies of the Tripitaka 760 years after its creation.

■ Due to the sophistication of its editing and process of compilation and collation, the Tripitaka

Koreana is known as the most accurate of the Tripitakas written in classical Chinese; as a

standard critical edition for East Asian Buddhist scholarship, it has been widely distributed and

used over the ages.

■ The woodblocks of the Tripitaka Koreana and miscellaneous Buddhist scriptures outline a

complete "knowledge system" that produces and distributes knowledge. The Tripitaka is a

compilation of Buddhist literature including scripture, disciplinary manuals, commentary,

doxography and history; based on this collection of information a unique system of scholastic

research was established.

■ These wooden printing blocks became a medium through which knowledge could be produced

and distributed continuously. Using these woodblocks, Haeinsa Monastery printed copies every

time need arose, as resources for research and material for the education of the ordained.

Accordingly, Haeinsa Monastery was able to become a central locus for the traditional practice

of knowledge transmission, where Buddhist education, the preservation of knowledge, and

scholastic research could be conducted. Even in the present, Haeinsa Monastery reflects this

tradition as a center of Buddhist scholastic study as the designated Dharma-jewel Monastery of

Korea, responsible for the teaching and transmission of the Dharma, amongst the Three Precious

Jewels of Buddhism: Buddha, Dharma, Saṅgha, i.e. Buddha, the Law, and the Ecclesia or Order.

(4) On the nature of Chosŏn Buddhism

Please refer to Eun-su Cho, “Re-thinking Late 19th Century Chosŏn Buddhist Society.” Acta Koreana, Vol. 6, No. 2 (July 2003).

(5) Women in Korean Buddhism (from Eun-su Cho, “Introduction,” in Cho, Eun-su, ed. Korean Buddhist Nuns and Laywomen: Hidden Histories, Enduring Vitality. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2011.)

■ The existence of Korean nuns has been noticed from the beginning of Buddhism in Korea. With

a long history of 1,600 years, even though their's is only one history, Korean nuns stand out in the

history of world religion. The established theory holds that when the monks' Order was formed on

the transmission of Buddhism to Korea, a nuns' Order was established at almost the same time. It

is a well known fact that nuns from Paekche went to Japan and played a decisive role in the

establishment of a nuns' Order in Japan. At present, of all the Buddhist countries, Korea is the

first of only a number of East Asian Mahayana Buddhist countries where there is a tradition of the

nuns proper who receive the full precepts. Moreover, when we take into account its long history,

the status of the tradition of Korean nuns is very significant.

■ The history of the nuns' Sangha began in the time of the Buddha when his maternal aunt

Mahprajpati and five hundred women were ordained by the Buddha. So while the Buddha

permitted the ordination of nuns, he demanded that they observe the condition of the eight chief

rules of respect paid by the nuns to the monks. For anyone concerned about the status of women

in Buddhism, this was a problem that caused considerable anguish. Scholarly research to date on

this can be summarized into two sorts. The first is that this did not reflect the thinking of the

Buddha himself, but that these were regulations created in later times by his conservative

disciples. The second holds that while the Buddha may have said this himself and his own

disciples may have created these regulations, this was an expedient utterance that was made to

take into account the opposition of the Indian society of the day. Although it is expected that

there would be criticism of the inequality between the status and roles of nuns and monks, it

must be emphasized that Buddhism is virtually the only one of all the world's high religions in

which the male clergy gave permission for female clergy to exist alongside the male clergy. No

matter which interpretation is adopted, the Buddhist Order is made up of the four assemblies;

that is the female and male clergy, and female and male believers; and that was codified, which

is an index of the longevity of the egalitarian and democratic nature of the social and political

ideas of Buddhism.

■ However, unlike the Buddha who practised the idea of equality, later Buddhism, in the flow of

history, was corroded by the surrounding patriarchal society and culture, and lost the spirit of the

time of the Buddha. Korea was no exception. The Korean nuns suffered ordeals for a long

time in the past because they were women. Over the last thirty years the Korean nuns' Sangha

has achieved a notable growth, and currently half the ordained clerics of the Chogye Order are

nuns. They have played a prominent role in various spheres such as proselytization, education 

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and the operation of monasteries, and not just as practitioners (of meditation). Moreover, they

receive systematic education and training in lecture halls and meditation rooms, possess an

awareness of the history and tradition of their own existence through lineage and teacher-disciple

inheritance, and live a communal life in the nunneries with other practitioners in joint ownership

of their own true character. They are an important element in Korean society and not just in the

Buddhist realm, for they are an autonomous force that contributes in contemporary society to a

new definition of the meaning of a greater Buddhist society, and to the moral restoration of the

pure religious tradition.

6. Resources on Korean Buddhist Thought – Annotated Bibliographies

(1) Primary Sources - Chinese Buddhist scriptures

■ Taisho Canon from vol. 1-55, printed in Japan during the Taisho era. Now digitally serviced

through CBETA in Taiwan, at http://www.cbeta.org/index.htm

■ Koryo Canon, digitally serviced though RITK at http://www.sutra.re.kr/

■ Korean Buddhist writings

Han'guk Pulgyo chŏnsŏ 『韓國佛敎全書』, vol. 1-14. The texts are not serviced but the search

the key words are provided at 동국대학교 전자불전연구소,

http://ebti.dongguk.ac.kr/ebti/main.html

(2) Catalogues and dictionaries

■ The Korean Buddhist Canon: A Descriptive Catalogue, by Lewis Lancaster and Sung Bae Park, University of California Press, 1979. A catalogue of Koryo version of Tripitaka, brief descriptions of titles in different languages, authors, translators and cross-canon references.

Contents are now serviced at http://www.hm.tyg.jp/~acmuller/descriptive_catalogue/.

■ Dictionary of Buddhist Terms (Sanskrit, Tibetan, Chinese, Korean, and Japanese terms) at

http://www.buddhism-dict.net/ddb/index.html (id: guest, password: guest, 10 visits are allowed a day)

(3) Sino-Korean Buddhist texts in Korean translation

■ 韓國의 哲學思想, 삼국시대편, 고려시대편, 조선시대편, 서울대출판부. Excerpt

translations of 한국불교전서 부분발췌역.

(4) Sino-Korean Buddhist texts in English translation

■ Lee, Peter H. and Theodore De. Barry. Sources of Korean Tradition, Volume I & II. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997. Contains selected translation of Korean Buddhist writings

■ Wonhyo translation project is underway.

■ Chinul’s writings are collected in Robert Buswell, The Korean Approach to Zen: The Collected Works of Chinul, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1983.

■ Kakhun. Translated with an introduction by Peter H. Lee. Lives of eminent Korean monks (the Haedong kosung chon). Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1969.

■ Kusan Sunim, translated by Martine Fages. The way of Korean Zen. New York: Weatherhill, 1985.

■ Yan, Han-sung, et al. tr. & eds. Hyech’o Diary: Memoir of Pilgrimage to the Five Regions of India. Asian Humanities Press, 1984.

(5) Selected Secondary Sources: Books on Korean Buddhism

Please check http://www.hawaii.edu/korea/biblio/rel_buddhism.html

■ Lancaster, Lewis R. and C.S. Yu ed. Introduction of Buddhism to Korea: new cultural patterns. Berkeley, Calif. : Asian Humanities Press, 1989.

■ Lancaster, Lewis R. and C.S. Yu ed. Assimilation of Buddhism in Korea: religious maturity and innovation in the Silla Dynasty. Berkeley, Calif.: Asian Humanities Press, 1991.

■ Lancaster, Lewis R., Kikun Suh and Chai-shin Yu. Buddhism in Koryŏ: A Royal Religion. Berkeley: University of California at Berkeley, Institute of East Asian Studies Press, 1996.

■ Lancaster, Lewis R., Chai-shin Yu. Buddhism in the Early Chosŏn: Suppression and Transformation. Berkeley: University of California at Berkeley, Institute of East Asian Studies Press, 1996.

Park Sung Bae. Buddhist Faith and Sudden Enlightenment. Albany: SUNY Press, 1983. (on Wŏnhyo)

Keel Hee-Sung. Chinul: The Founder of the Korean Sŏn Tradition, Berkeley Buddhist Studies Series 6. Seoul: Po Chin Chai, 1984. (On Chinul)

Robert Buswell. The Formation of the Ch’an Ideology in China and Korea. Princeton University Press, 1989. (on Wŏnhyo)

Buswell Jr., Robert E. Tracing Back the Radiance: Chinul’s Korean Way of Zen. Kuroda Institute, University of Hawaii Press, 1991. (On Chinul)

■ ----. The Zen Monastic Experience: Buddhist Practice in Contemporary Korea. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992.

■ ----. Currents and Countercurrents: Korean Influences on the East Asian Buddhist Traditions. Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 2005.

■ Martine Batchelor, Women in Korean Zen. Syracuse University, Press, 2006.

■ Park, Pori. Trial and Error on Modernist Reforms: Korean Buddhism under Japanese Colonial Rule. Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 2009.

■ Park, Jin Y., ed. Makers of Modern Korean Buddhism. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2010.

■ Cho, Eun-su, ed. Korean Buddhist Nuns and Laywomen: Hidden Histories, Enduring Vitality. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2011.

(6) Articles on Korean Buddhism

Please check http://www.hawaii.edu/korea/biblio/rel_buddhism.html

(7) Journals

English journals publishing works on Korean Buddhism

■ JIABS (Journal of International Association for Buddhist Studies). published by the IABS, the most comprehensive Buddhist scholars’ organization in the world. However Korean Buddhism is rarely featured in this journal.

■ International Journal of Buddhist Thought and Culture, published by Dongguk

University, Korea

http://eng.buddhapia.com/_Service/buddhapia/0000000287/default.asp?menu_cd=00000

08843&TOP_MENU_CD=0000000287

■ Korea Journal, published by UNESCO Korean Commission, publishes articles on Korean Buddhism occasionally. The contents are serviced at http://www.ekoreajournal.net/.

■ The Review of Korean Studies, from the Academy of Korean Studies in Korea,

http://review.aks.ac.kr/.

■ Acta Koreana, from Keimyung University, abstracts are available at

http://actakoreana.org/publs/.

■ Seoul Journal of Korean Studies, from Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies.

Journals in Korean language

n 『 한국불교학』

n 『 불교학연구』

n 『 불교연구』

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Selected Secondary Sources: Books on Korean Buddhism

Please check http://www.hawaii.edu/korea/biblio/rel_buddhism.html

Adams, Eamon. “Korean Buddhism during the Colonial Korea: A Complex Reality.” International Journal of Buddhist Thought & Culture 14 (February 2010): 7-23.

Addiss, Stephen, with Stanley Lombardo and Judith Roitman, eds. Zen Sourcebook: Traditional Documents from China, Korea, and Japan. Indianapolis, Ind.: Hackett, 2008.

An, Chunyong. “This Way of Ours: Buddhist Memorial Temples and the Search for Values during the Late Koryo Dynasty.” Hanguk pulgyohak 54 (2009:8): 35-83.

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