동아시아의 평화와 화해의 정치학 Scrapbook: 강화 조약

강화 조약 - 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전

강화 조약

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강화 조약(講和條約, 영어: peace treaty)은 전쟁 및 전쟁상태를 종결시켜 최종적으로 평화를 회복시키기 위한 교전국 간의 조약이다. 평화 조약(平和條約), 평화 협정(平和協定)이라고도 한다.

구별 개념

항복

항복(Surrender)는 교전의 일방이 전쟁의 패배를 인정하고, 무력사용의 중단을 약속하는 것이다.

정전 협정

정전 협정(ceasefire)는 교전을 잠시 중단하는 약속이다. 공식적인 전쟁의 종료인 평화 협정은 아니다. 제1차 세계대전 당시, 영국, 프랑스군과 독일군은 크리스마스 하루를 지내기 위해 비공식 정전협정이 구두로 체결되기도 한다. 공식적인 문서로 정전의 약속을 하는 것은 휴전 협정(armistice)이라고 한다.

휴전 협정

휴전 협정(Armistice)은 전쟁을 잠시 중단하는 조약이다. 공식적인 전쟁의 종료인 평화 협정은 아니다. 공식적인 문서로 작성된다.

평화 조약의 내용

국경의 공식적인 확정

앞으로 분쟁이 발생할 경우의 분쟁해결절차

천연자원에 대한 양측의 접근 방법, 분배 방법

전쟁범죄인의 처리 방법

난민의 처리 방법

남은 부채의 청산

소유권 다툼 대상 물권의 청산

금지하는 행위의 정의

현존 조약의 재적용

위의 내용들이 하나의 평화협정으로 체결되기도 하고, 분리되어 합의된 사안부터 개별적 평화 협정으로 체결되기도 한다.

현대전에서 평화 협정의 체결양식은 전투를 중지하기 위한 정전 협정이 구두로 체결되고, 이에 이어서 평화 회담이 개최되며, 평화 협정(강화 조약)에서 전쟁종료의 확인, 평화의 회복, 영토할양, 배상지불이 결정된다. 제2차 세계 대전 후는 패전국의 항복시에 강화의 기초가 될 중요사항이 결정되어 전승국의 장기점령정책으로 점차 이를 실현하여, 그 후에 평화 협정이 체결되었다. 그러나 전후 2개의 체제의 대립이 격화된 결과 국가와 국가의 문제로서 보다 체제와 체제의 문제로서 취급되는 경우가 많다.

유엔의 역할

유엔은 제2차 세계대전 이후 창립 이래 국제 분쟁 문제 해결을 위한 포럼의 역할을 수행해왔다. 전시가 진행되는 동안 국가가 행동을 제한하고 통제하고자하는 여러 국제 협약 및 의무가 수반된다. 이것은 공식적인 전쟁 선언이 종종 시행되지 않는다는 것을 의미한다.

유엔 시스템에서 평화 협정

제1차 세계 대전보다 충격적이었던 제2차 세계 대전이 끝난 이래로 UN 시스템이 제정되었고 UN 헌장에서는 군사력 사용 금지를 선언하고 있다. 한편 유엔 헌장은 무력 공격을 겪고있는 나라들에 대해 UN 안전 보장 이사회 결의안에 의한 군대 조치와 자국 방어에 대한 군사행위를 허용한다. 국가에 의한 무력 사용. 유엔 안전 보장 이사회 결의안에 따른 군사적 조치나 불법적인 무장 공격에 대한 자위권 행사만으로 전쟁이 촉발된다.[1]

전례

베르사유 조약

제1차 세계대전을 공식적으로 끝낸 조약이다. 이 조약에 따라 독일은 거액의 배상금을 전승국에 지불하도록 강제됐지만, 결국 제2차 세계 대전으로 치달았다.

베스트팔렌 조약

이 조약은 근대적인 외교 수법의 시초이기도 하고, 근대 국제법의 원조이기도 하고, 근대적인 국민국가 시스템의 개시로도 일컬어진다.

대한민국

2007년, '한반도 및 동북아 평화와 안전을 위한 프레임워크' 보고서에서 평화 협정이라는 용어가 사용되었다. 이 보고서를 주도한 제임스 굿비는 조약의 경우 미국에서는 상원 3분의 2 이상의 찬성으로 동의를 받아야 하는데, 그것이 어려울 것으로 예상했기에 상원의 동의 절차가 필요없는 협정을 택하게 되었다고 밝혔다.[2]

2010년 1월 11일, 북한 외무성은 조선전쟁(6.25전쟁)의 정전 협정을 평화 협정으로 바꾸기 위한 회담을 시작할 것을 정전협정 당사국들에 제의한다고 밝혔다. '정전협정 당사국들'을 구체적으로 밝히지 않았으나, 2009년 12월 스티븐 보스워스 미국 대북정책 특별대표가 북한을 방문했을 때, 북측은 중국과 대한민국이 참여하는 `4자 대화'를 거론한 것으로 알려져 있다.[3]

남북평화협정

남한과 북한은 현재 휴전 협정을 체결한 상태인데, 이를 평화 협정으로 바꾸어야 한다는 주장이 있다.

정전 협정은 지난 1953년 7월 27일 판문점에서 마크 클라크 유엔군 총사령관과 김일성 북한군 총사령관, 그리고 펑더화이 중공인민지원군 사령관이 서명해 체결되었다. 국제법상 전시의 정전협정 또는 평화협정 체결은 의회 비준이 없이 군사령관만의 서명으로 발효가 된다.

북한은 남한의 이승만 대통령이 정전협정에 서명하지 않아, 정전협정의 당사자는 미국 뿐이지 남한은 아니라고 주장한다. 그러나 미국은 가장 강력한 화력을 가진 동맹국으로서의 서명을 함과 동시에, 이승만 대통령으로부터 전시작전권을 위임받은 수임인으로서 본인인 이승만 대통령을 대신하는 지위도 겸하여 서명한 것이기 때문에, 대한민국도 정전협정의 당사자이다.

긍정설

북한은 미국과의 평화협정을 강력하게 주장하고 있다. 남한은 정전협정 당사자가 아니라서 평화협정 대상도 아니라고 한다.

부정설

남한의 일부 시민단체들은 북한의 평화협정 주장에 불응하고 있다.

무용론

남북한은 이미 1972년 남북최초회담에서 평화협정을 체결하였다. 74선언이다. 평화협정은 무슨 특별한 조약이 아니라, 상호불가침조약을 말한다. 74선언에서 남북한은 분단이래 최초로 불가침조약을 체결했다. 조약은 아니라 신사협정이라고 하지만, 그 둘의 차이에 큰 의미가 있는 것은 아니다.

따라서, 1972년 남북최초회담으로 남북한은 국경선이 확정되었으며, 불가침조약을 체결하여서, 이미 평화협정이 체결된 지 40년이 넘었다. 정전협정이나 평화협정이나 실제 불가침이 중요한 것이지, 문서를 아무리 작성해도 실제로 군사도발을 계속한다면, 무슨 조약으로도 큰 의미는 없다.

74선언 제2조에서 "쌍방은 북과남 사이의 긴장상태를 완화하고 신뢰의 분위기를 조성하기 위하여 서로 상대방을 중상 비방하지 않으며 크고 작은 것을 막론하고 무장도발을 하지 않으며 불의의 군사적 충돌사건을 방지하기 위한 적극적인 조치를 취하기로 합의하였다."고 명시했다.

같이 보기

위키미디어 공용에 관련된

미디어 분류가 있습니다.

강화 조약

휴전협정

정전협정

북미평화협정

한국 군사 정전에 관한 협정

각주

Randall Lesaffer,“ Too Much History: from War as Sanction to the Sanctioning of War”, in Marc Weller (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the Use of Force in International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), p.37.

“평화 협정 상원 동의 불필요”《한겨레》2007-04-14 오후 03:35:57

北, 정전협정당사국 평화협정 회담 제의 Archived 2013년 10월 3일 - 웨이백 머신《연합뉴스》2010-01-11 16:23

참고 문헌

외교부-한반도평화체제

위키문헌-한국전쟁 정전협정문

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Peace treaty

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the X-Sinner album, see Peace Treaty (album).

The Treaty of Versailles, signed at the conclusion of World War I

A peace treaty is an agreement between two or more hostile parties, usually countries or governments, which formally ends a state of war between the parties.[1] It is different from an armistice, which is an agreement to stop hostilities; a surrender, in which an army agrees to give up arms; or a ceasefire or truce, in which the parties may agree to temporarily or permanently stop fighting.

The need for a peace treaty in modern diplomacy arises from the fact that even when a war is actually over and fighting has ceased, the legal state of war is not automatically terminated upon the end of actual fighting and the belligerent parties are still legally defined as enemies. This is evident from the definition of a "state of war" as "a legal state created and ended by official declaration regardless of actual armed hostilities and usually characterized by operation of the rules of war".[2] As a result, even when hostilities are over, a peace treaty is required for the former belligerents in order to reach agreement on all issues involved in transition to legal state of peace. The art of negotiating a peace treaty in the modern era has been referred to by legal scholar Christine Bell as the lex pacificatoria,[3] with a peace treaty potentially contributing to the legal framework governing the post conflict period, or jus post bellum.

Since 1950, the rate at which interstate wars end with a formal peace treaty has substantially declined.[4]

Elements of treaties

The "Peace Memorial" about the Treaty of Nöteborg at the Orekhovy Island

The content of a treaty usually depends on the nature of the conflict being concluded. In the case of large conflicts between numerous parties, international treaty covering all issues or separate treaties signed between each party.

There are many possible issues that may be included in a peace treaty such as the following:

Formal designation of borders

Processes for resolving future disputes

Access to and apportioning of resources

Status of refugees

Status of prisoners of war

Settling of existing debts

Defining of as unjust behavior

The re-application of existing treaties

Revenge

In modern history, certain intractable conflict situations may be brought to a ceasefire before they are dealt with via a peace process in which a number of discrete steps are taken on each side to reach the mutually-desired eventual goal of peace and the signing of a treaty.

A peace treaty also is often not used to end a civil war, especially in cases of a failed secession, as it implies mutual recognition of statehood. In cases such as the American Civil War, it usually ends when the losing side's army surrenders and its government collapses. By contrast, a successful secession or declaration of independence is often formalized by means of a peace treaty.

Treaties are often ratified in territories deemed neutral in the previous[clarification needed] conflict and delegates from the neutral countries acting as witnesses to the signatories.

Role of the United Nations

Since its founding after World War II the United Nations has sought to act as a forum for resolution in matters of international conflict. A number of international treaties and obligations are involved in which member states seek to limit and control behavior during wartime. The action of declaring war is now very unlikely to be undertaken.

Peace treaty under the United Nations

Since the end of World War II, United Nations Charter Article 2 restricts the use of military force.[5] The UN Charter allows only two exceptions: "military measures by UN Security Council resolutions" and "exercise of self-defense" in countries subjected to armed attacks in relation to the use of force by states. Under the current UN system, war is triggered only by the enforcement of military measures under UN Security Council resolutions or the exercise of self-defense rights against illegal armed attacks.

Therefore, if the use of military force arises, it is called 'international armed conflict' instead of 'war'. The fact that the current international law system avoids the use of the term 'war' also avoids the conclusion of a peace treaty based on the existence of war.[6] A peace treaty was not signed after the end of the Iraq War in 2003, and only the UN Security Council Resolution 1483, adopted on May 22, 2003, stipulated the postwar regime for the stability and security of Iraq exclusively.[7]

Post-conflict elections

One of the UN's roles in peace processes is to conduct post-conflict elections but, on the whole, they are thought to have no effect, or even a negative effect, on peace after civil war.[8][9][10]

However, when peace agreements transform rebel groups into political parties, the effect on peace is positive, especially if international interveners use their moments of power distribution to hold the former combatants to the terms of their peace agreement.[11][12]

Historic peace treaties

Ancient history

Tablet of one of the earliest recorded treaties in history, Treaty of Kadesh, at the Istanbul Archaeology Museum

Probably the earliest recorded peace treaty, although it is rarely mentioned or remembered, was between the Hittite Empire and the Hayasa-Azzi confederation, around 1350 BC. More famously, one of the earliest recorded peace treaties was concluded between the Hittite and the Egyptian Empires after 1274 BC Battle of Kadesh (see Egyptian-Hittite peace treaty). The battle took place in what is modern-day Syria, the entire Levant being at that time contested between the two empires. After an extremely costly four-day battle, in which neither side gained a substantial advantage, both sides claimed victory. The lack of resolution led to further conflict between Egypt and the Hittites, with Ramesses II capturing the city of Kadesh and Amurru in his 8th year as king.[13] However, the prospect of further protracted conflict between the two states eventually persuaded both their rulers, Hatusiliš III and Ramesses, to end their dispute and sign a peace treaty. Neither side could afford the possibility of a longer conflict since they were threatened by other enemies: Egypt was faced with the task of defending its long western border with Libya against the incursion of Libyan tribesmen by building a chain of fortresses stretching from Mersa Matruh to Rakotis, and the Hittites faced a more formidable threat in the form of the Assyrian Empire, which "had conquered Hanigalbat, the heartland of Mitanni, between the Tigris and the Euphrates" rivers, which had previously been a Hittite vassal state.[14]

The peace treaty was recorded in two versions, one in Egyptian hieroglyphs, and the other in Akkadian using cuneiform script; both versions survive. Such dual-language recording is common to many subsequent treaties. The treaty differs from others, however, in that the two language versions are worded differently. Although the majority of the text is identical, the Hittite version claims that the Egyptians came suing for peace, and the Egyptian version claims the reverse. The treaty was given to the Egyptians in the form of a silver plaque, and the "pocket-book" version was taken back to Egypt and carved into the Temple of Karnak.

The Treaty was concluded between Ramesses II and Hatusiliš III in the twenty-first year of Ramesses' reign[15] (c. 1258 BC). Its eighteen articles call for peace between Egypt and Hatti and then proceed to maintain that their respective people also demand peace. It contains many elements found in more modern treaties, but it is more far-reaching than later treaties' simple declaration of the end of hostilities. It also contains a mutual-assistance pact in case one of the empires should be attacked by a third party or in the event of internal strife. There are articles pertaining to the forced repatriation of refugees and provisions that they should not be harmed, which might be thought of as the first extradition treaty. There are also threats of retribution, should the treaty be broken.

The treaty is considered of such importance in the field of international relations that a replica of it hangs in the UN's headquarters.

Following the five years war between Kushite Kandake, Amanirenas and Augustus of Rome, a peace treaty was conducted in the year 21/20 BC. [16][17][18] Mediators were sent from Kush to Augustus who was in Samos at that time.[19] An entente between the two parties was beneficial to both. The Kushites were a regional power in their own right and resented paying tribute. The Romans also sought a quiet southern border for their absolutely essential Egyptian grain supplies, without constant war commitments, and welcomed a friendly buffer state in a border region beset with raiding nomads. The Kushites too appear to have found nomads like the Blemmyes to be a problem.[20] The conditions were ripe for a deal. During negotiations, Augustus granted the Kushite envoys all they asked for, and also cancelled the tribute earlier demanded by Rome.[21] Premmis (Qasr Ibrim), and areas north of Qasr Ibrim in the southern portion of the "Thirty-Mile Strip" were ceded to the Kushites. The Dodekaschoinos was established as a buffer zone, and Roman forces were pulled back to the old Greek Ptolemaic border at Maharraqa.[22] Roman emperor Augustus signed the treaty with the Kushites on Samos. The settlement bought Rome peace and quiet on its Egyptian frontier, as well as increased the prestige of Roman Emperor Augustus, demonstrating his skill and ability to broker peace without constant warfare, and do business with the distant Kushites, who a short time earlier had been fighting his troops. The respect accorded the emperor by the Kushite envoys as the treaty also created a favorable impression with other foreign ambassadors present on Samos, including envoys from India, and strengthened Augustus' hand in upcoming negotiations with the powerful Parthians.[23]

Peace-treaty of Zadar (1358), which ended the war between the Croato-Hungarian Kingdom and the Republic of Venice, forcing the latter to withdraw from Croatian coast

The settlement ushered in a period of peace between the two empires for around three centuries. Inscriptions erected by Queen Amanirenas on an ancient temple at Hamadab, south of Meroe, record the war and the favorable outcome from the Kushite perspective.[24] Along with his signature on the official treaty, Roman emperor Augustus marked the agreement by directing his administrators to collaborate with regional priests in the erection of a temple at Dendur, and inscriptions depict the emperor himself celebrating local deities.[25]

Modern history

Famous examples include the Treaty of Paris (1815), signed after Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, and the Treaty of Versailles, formally ending the First World War between Germany and the Allies. Despite popular belief, the war did not end completely until the Allies concluded peace with the Ottoman Empire in 1919 at the Treaty of Sèvres.

The Treaty of Versailles, as well as the Kellogg-Briand Pact, is possibly the most notorious of peace treaties, and is blamed by many historians for the rise of Nazism in Germany and the eventual outbreak of the Second World War in 1939. The costly reparations that Germany was forced to pay the victors, the fact that Germany had to accept sole responsibility for starting the war, and the harsh restrictions on German rearmament were all listed in the Treaty of Versailles and caused massive resentment in Germany. Whether or not the treaty can be blamed for starting another war, it exemplifies the difficulties involved in making peace. However, no such conflict resulted from the more punitive settlement with the Ottoman Empire.

Another famous example would be the series of peace treaties known as the Peace of Westphalia. It initiated modern diplomacy, involving the modern system of nation-states. Subsequent wars were no longer over religion but revolved around issues of state. That encouraged Catholic and Protestant powers to ally, leading to a number of major realignments.

The Korean War is an example of a conflict that was ended by an armistice, rather than a peace treaty with the Korean Armistice Agreement. However, that war has never technically ended, because a final peace treaty or settlement has never been achieved.[26]

A more recent example of a peace treaty is the 1973 Paris Peace Accords that sought to end the Vietnam War.

동아시아의 평화와 화해의 정치학 Scrapbook

2023-12-21

강화 조약 - 위키백과, Peace treaty

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