장휘 COMFORT WOMEN MOVEMENT IN POST-DEMOC KOREA, 1988-2007 , 2017 BY Whi Chang 장휘

SOCIAL MOVEMENTS AND NATIONALISM: COMFORT WOMEN MOVEMENT AND NARRATIVES OF NATION IN POST-DEMOCRATIZATION KOREA, 1988-2007 

PhD POLITICAL SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI

MAY 2017, BY Whi Chang 장휘 

 

Dissertation Committee: 

Sankaran Krishna, Chairperson 

Manfred Henningsen 

Jonathan Goldberg-Hiller 

Jungmin Seo 

Edward J. Shultz 

======================

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 

ABSTRACT 

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 

1.1 The “Final and Irreversible” Agreement on the Comfort Women Issue

1.2 ‘Comfort Women’ Issue and the Process of Korean Nationalism 

1.3 Nationalism as Discourse and Political Process

1.4 Myths of Korean Nationalism 

1.4.1 Historical continuity 

1.4.2 Korean nationalism is formed by the state and elites 

1.4.3 Korean nationalism has not changed in essence 

1.4.4 Korean nationalism is an obstacle in creating rational citizens 

1.5 History and Nationhood after Globalization and Democratization 

1.6 Case 

1.6.1 Emergence of history-related social movements 

1.6.2 History related movements 

1.7 Structure of the Chapters

CHAPTER 2. Communitarian Nationalism and the Role of Social Movements 

2.1 Conundrum of Korean Nationalism: Is Korean Nationalism Civic or Ethnic?  

2.2 Beyond Civic vs. Ethnic Nationalism

2.2.1 Civic vs. Ethnic Nationalism 

2.2.2 State-framed vs. Counter-state nationalism

2.2.3 Community-oriented and value-oriented nationalism

2.2.4 Alternative typology

2.3 Theoretical Framework for Studying Korean Nationalism

2.4 Framework for Korean Nationalism

2.4.1 Social movements and nationalism

2.4.2 Culture, Identity, and Social Movements

2.4.3 Centrality of History in Social Movements in South Korea

2.4.4 Conformist or dissident nationalism?

2.5 Theories of Social Movements: How to Analyze the Impact of Social Movements on Larger Society?

2.6 Reading Korean Nationalism in Korea 

2.6.1 Reification of Korean nationalism

2.6.2 Origins of the Korean Nation 

2.6.3 What Do Contentious Nations Mean?8 

2.6.4 Context of usage of language in Contents Analysis

2.6.5 Korean nationalism as projects

2.7 Conclusion

CHAPTER 3. METHODS

3.1 Methods in Nationalism and Social Movement Studies

3.1.1 Nationalism studies

3.1.2 Social movements studies1 

3.2 Understanding Changes of Korean Nationalism

3.3 Data 

3.4 Sampling and Coding

3.4.1 Sampling Data

3.4.2 Coding

3.4.3 What is the article: editorials/columns/opinions vs. reports?

3.4.4 News from the News Agency

3.5 Three Core Framing Tasks: Diagnostic, Prognostic, and Motivational Frames 

CHAPTER 4. PROTO-NARRATIVE OF KOREAN NATIONALISM AND COUNTER-

NATIONALISM IN THE PARK CHUNG-HEE REGIME

4.1 The problem with the term “nation” in the Korean context

4.2 Nations Sharing History and Destiny: Park Chung-hee’s Nationalist Discourse before the 

Korea-Japan Treaty (1960-1964)

4.3 Challenge for Dominant Discourse on the Nation: Anti Korea-Japan Talk Movements (1964)

4.4 Narrative of State/Nation: Nationalist Discourse of Park Chung-hee after the Korea-Japan 

Treaty (1964-1979)

4.5 Conclusion

CHAPTER 5. VOLUNTEER CORPS AND COMFORT WOMEN

5.1 A story of Ikeda Masae: former elementary school teacher in colonial Joseon 

5.2 Naming Matters

5.3 Debate on the confusion about the terms 

5.4 Definitions and Usages

5.4.1 Jeongsindae or volunteer corps

5.4.2 Wianbu as (military) prostitutes: threats to paternalist society

5.4.3 Collective Memory on ‘Comfort Women’

5.4.4 Confusion: jeongsindae as wianbu

5.5 Defining the victim: how the victims of sexual slavery in the military are called  

5.6 Conclusion

CHAPTER 6. WEDNESDAY DEMONSTRATION AND DISCURSIVE STRATEGIES: 

FRAMING ANALYSIS AND CONTENT ANALYSIS ON THE STATEMENTS

6.1 Wednesday Demonstration

6.2 Civil Society Initiative

6.3 Time Frame

6.4 Statements and Analysis 

6.4.1 Atypical Period: Before the Wednesday Demonstration (Jan 1988-Jan 1992) .

6.4.2 Formative Period: The 1st –The 148th Wednesday Demonstration (Jan/8/1992-Dec/28/1994)

6.4.3 Failed Normalized period: The 149th – the 391st Wednesday Demonstration (1995 – 1999)

6.4.4 Normalization period: The 392nd – The 590th Wednesday Demonstration (2000 – 2003) 

6.4.5 Reactionary period: The 591st – the 793rd Wednesday Demonstration (2004 – 2007)

6.4.6 The Recent Changes.

 6.5 Conclusion

CHAPTER 7. ‘COMFORT WOMEN’ MOVEMENTS AND NATIONALISM IN SOUTH KOREA

7.1 Defining the victim: What are the victims of military sexual slavery called? .

7.2 Before the 1990s: confusion between jeongsindae and wianbu

7.3 Atypical Period: Before the first testimony (1988- 1991)

7.3.1 Background

7.3.2 The Beginning of the Beginning

7.3.3 Introduction of cultural project: embrace ‘comfort women’ into minjung narrative .... 

7.4 Formative Period: August 15, 1991 – December 31, 1994

7.4.1 Nationalist Fiction: All Comfort Women Were Initially Recruited as Voluntary Corps .

7.5 Failed Normalization of ‘comfort women’ issue: 1995-1999

7.5.1 AWF and Korean Council

7.5.2 Grannie Hun Story

7.6 Normalization: Women’s Tribunal and Japanese history textbook (2000-2003) 

7.7 Reactionary Period: Bifurcation and the US House of Representative’s ‘Comfort Women’ Resolution

7.8 Conclusion

CHAPTER 8 REACTIONARY MOVEMENTS AND STATE-CENTERED NATIONALISM

8.1 Textbook War

8.1.1 Backlash from the Conservative

8.2 Pride of State, Victory of Development

CONCLUSION

APPENDIX: Coding Sheet

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 ================================

CONCLUSION

 

Nationalism of the Republic of Korea has been criticized for being one of the most exclusive and discriminative nationalisms. The ethnic nationalism of Korea became widespread throughout society in the 1960s and 70s. Because Korean nation is relatively homogenous and the content of nationalism is exclusive and hostile to former colonizer, the conflict over history issue in East Asia often understood as one of the dangerous non-Western type nationalisms that is encouraged by the state and political elites. With the theoretical tools to understand the ethnic conflicts among the different nation-states or in the multi-ethnic nation, it is difficult to understand the process of nationalism in a relatively homogeneous nation-state, like Korea. Those are rarely understood as “challenge” and “(re)construction” of new forms of identity.

         Alternative typology that can understand the different nationalist discourses emerged in a relatively homogeneous nation-state shed a new light to the process of nationalist discourse in Korean society around the comfort women issue. With the alternative typology, we can think about the nationalism based on the voluntary social organization and appeal to universal values rather than the values set by the community. The official narrative of Korean nation, which is state-centered, patriarchal and prioritizes the economic values and efficiency, has constantly modified as various social movements, especially the comfort women movement, after the democratization, engaged in (re)constructing the nationalist identity with a communitarian nationalist discursive strategy, which are based more on the universal value and can be expanded to transnational sympathy. 

         The comfort women movement has transformed its discursive strategies from ethnic nationalism to universal values, such as human rights, women’s rights, and peace. Though it began with nationalist resentment towards former colonial power and the patriarchal sympathy for the victims, it disseminated the idea that the comfort women victims are not only the victims of the colonial rule but also the victims of violence against women during the war and the victims of patriarchy and militarism. This turn enabled movement groups to expand the Korean nationalist discourse to the sympathetic not only to the victims of own patriarchal state but also victims abroad suffered from the atrocities done by Korean state. The alliance with the prostitution around the US bases in Korea and with the victims of the Vietnamese war suffered by the Korean military. So far, ethnic identity or national identity are believed to be the only driving forces to challenge and (re)construct existing nation state, but as is shown in Korean case, aspiration to some universal values mixed with ethnic nationalist sentiment is also one of the important driving forces that gives pressure to existing nationalism to change. 

         Faced with the comfort women issue, which is important parts of the Korean identity, various groups in society including the state, compete over the idea of how they “make sense of and structure the reality that surrounds” them. There have been many attempts for different social groups to incorporate the comfort women issue in their narrative of Korean nation or alternative identities. Democratic movement groups began to embrace the issue to their minjung narrative, women’s movement also tried to create history of Korean women including the agonies of ‘comfort women’. Patriarchal patriots took the comfort women issue aside since they thought it disgrace the honor of their male patriots. New Right scholars tried to show that how much flaw the nationalist historians have had, using the comfort women issue. 

I have examined what kind of theoretical framework is needed to look at the comfort women movement and its impact on Korean social nationalism. If I summarize roughly the works of the scholars who studied Korean nationalism, it is a strong ethnic nationalism; at the very least, it has not only maintained as a state of one nation since the Goryeo Dynasty but also had a narrative of the origin of the nation; foundation of modern nationalism was built by the intellectuals at the end of Joseon dynasty; and such nationalism has been maintained through various ideological state apparatuses since the establishment of the Republic of Korea. From these points of views, the most common presupposition is that Korean nationalism is viewed as a strong ethnic nationalism with primordial point of view and a nationalism conveyed from top to bottom, and a nationalism with little change after its formation. 

	State-framed nationalism		Counter-state nationalism
Community-oriented nationalism	State-centered nationalism (militarism,      fascism, right movements) wing		Substate nationalism (national minorities,  Indigenous)
Value-oriented nationalism	Institutional nationalism (liberal nationalism)		Communitarian nationalism (Movement groups based on

 

With this new typology, we can understand that both the conservative nationalism, which gives highest priority to the state as community and denounce ethnic nationalism, and the nationalism, which does not give unconditional loyalty to the national community and regard it as more of a source for sympathy for victims of crimes committed by state and focus more on universal values, such as human rights, liberty and equality are all different kinds of nationalism.

In this dissertation, I maintained the view of nationalism as a discourse, and after the state established state apparatus to control the entire society after the 1960s, official nationalism, which was effectively shared by all citizens. It showed that after the democratization, nationalist discourse itself became a field of ideological struggle as the Korean nationalism became the part of different world view of various social forces.

I also argued that Park Chung-hee’s nationalist world view provides the roots of various nationalist discourses after the democratization of Korean society and analyzed what it was. After he succeeded in the coup in 1961, Park made the mobilization system, reaching out until the far end of the Korean society, almost as if Japan was developing as a militarist state since the Meiji era. Thus, official Korean nationalism created by him and his brains spread throughout society through such a system, repeatedly reproduced through diverse disciplines, and transformed in different ways through individual organizations within society. In the 80s, the workers in the labor movement were organized and managed under these rules, and the students in the student movement were the hardest learners and memorize doctrines of these countries.

         Park Chung-hee served as a teacher in the province during the Japanese occupation and went to Manchuria to enter the Manchu Military Academy at a relatively old age and became a Japanese military officer. It is evident that his nationalistic worldview was greatly influenced by Japan's imperialist worldview. Many social organizations and disciplines of the Park Chung-hee era, such as the National Education Charter, the patriotist morning assembly at school, the Saemaeul Movement, etc., also existed in the age of Japanese imperialism.

Park 's worldview, the view of thorough ethnic nationalism, explains both his coup, the restoration, and economic development in the narrative of nationalist historical development. To Park, Chung-hee, the Korean nation is the community of destiny divided by blood. And for him, the republic of Korea, the state, is the Korean nation itself. Therefore, it becomes possible to make the logic that all Koreans should sacrifice to the state for the rebirth of the Korean nation.

The narrative, which became the basic framework of the history of the Korean nation, is also found in the works of Park Chung-hee. Park sees the world as a state in which the nations compete for wealth and territory, a typical Hobbesian “the struggle of all against all.” Joseon, defeated in such competition – the emergence of imperialism – is depicted as the most lazy and corrupt era by Park Chung-hee. The Korean people, who had been plunged with their large territories in the past, became weak, lazy and corrupt after the Joseon Dynasty. Through the Japanese imperialism, the independence of the nation was damaged. Through the Korean War, the land was ruined. After the war, under the name of freedom, political groups that think only of interest of their own have had more difficult times. Only through his revolution - the coup d'etat - the October Yusin – the constitutional amendment that enabled him permanent presidency – the Korean people were rejuvenated for the first time.

Some of the interesting things in these narratives are found, which are repeated themes in both the state-centered and communitarian nationalism of Korea. In this narrative, the history of Korean people's freedom is also considered important, as the he bravely conducted a revolution for freedom and rights, Korean people revolutionized the corrupt democratic and political forces.

People showed the power to restore the rights and freedoms that were damaged through the Donghak movement or the 4.19 revolution. Though 5.16 is absent, but the narrative of the democratization movement, starting with Donghak, through 4.19 and 5.18, leading to the 1987’s civil revolution, is similar. 

The basic frame of thought of national-centered nationalism is also found in Park's view of nationalism. In Park 's nationalistic narrative, the rise and fall of a nation is mainly determined by the most economic poverty and prosperity. When people are poor and unable to eat, the nation is not doing well. These patter of thought is repeated in the same way in the history of the New Right, and they also make the element of economic development as a top priority in the development of Kora. Therefore, all that contributed to such development is good and all that did not contribute to such development or everything that interferes is evil.

In Park 's view of the nationalist world, many of Korea' s conservative thinking and progressive thinking can somehow be viewed as both sides of the coin. Although progressive nationalism recognizes itself as nationalist, it has diversified and developed or stagnated since democratization. However, conservative nationalists are turning all groups and individuals that are disturbed by it as the sole measure of the economy without being aware of themselves as nationalists.

In chapter 5, I have looked at how the words jeongsindae and wianbu were used in Korean media before the 1990s. There have been many controversies over the use and meaning of this term, but it was a very simple matter to look at the usage in Korean society before the 1990s. In its simplest terms, jeongsindae was used to mean almost historical comfort women after liberation, and wianbu meant almost a prostitute, especially a prostitute working around the army.

         The use of these terms seems to have been used in the Korean society without any doubt until the comfort women issue became politicized and socially known. Wianbu has been used as a general noun since the time of Japanese imperialism, which means prostitutes around the military. And when the comfort women were recruited and after the war was over, those who were taken to ‘comfort women’ were called jeongsindae among Koreans partly because some of them drafted to voluntary corps were actually became comfort women and partly because such rumors may have been made as a way of resistance to the recruitment of young school girls. Whatever the reason, the use of jeongsindae to refer to comfort women was not contrived by some of the movement groups for their national agendas, but only reflecting the usage that has been used from the very short period after the end of colonization.

         The discursive strategy of the movements for comfort women has changed dramatically in a couple of decades. The most changes occurred in motivational frames, which is closely related to the formation of the identity. In the initial stage, there were no motivational frames. First, it called upon to the Japanese government, expanded to the Korean government, to participants and finally to every people in the world who shares the desire for justice and peace.

The changes and expansion of the motivational frames affect the change of diagnostic frames. 

         Criticism towards the movement groups that nationalist agenda haunts them may be right.^[1] In the initial period of the movement and faced with the threat of the AWF, the movement groups depended upon nationalist discourses and concealed the complex nature of comfort women issue. 

         Which is more responsible for the dominant nationalist interpretation on the comfort women issue in Korea? Is it the movement groups for comfort women or is it the strong nationalist sentiment already powerful and provided very little room for the members of the society to think outside it? The hegemonic nature of Korean nationalism has prevented many actors in the society from thinking outside of it. There is the window that we can see what the comfort women movements have done to Korean nationalism. For example, Lee (2015, 48) argues that “whereas ‘comfort women’ or ‘voluntary corps’ issue had been the issue of violated women’s chastity which should not be socially discussed so far, as the laws, policies, and movements related to ‘comfort women’ issue is getting shaped, the recognition of has changed to the issue of war, human rights, and historical responsibility.” Only through the process of its movement, it can go beyond the nationalist hegemony. 

         During the long reign of dictatorship, the Korean state constructed a strong social organization of reproductive system not only for the state-led economic system but also for the state led ideological system, modeled by the Japanese militarism. All society – village, school, factory, company, and even the religious institutions – was organized as military organization.²⁶¹ Not only the organizational structure but also the disciplinary tools were taken from the military organizations.²⁶² Even the dissident groups were also organized in similar logic. In the developing of everything era in the 1970s and 1980s, those military mimicking institutions are most advanced and effective one for most of the people. No other ways of organizing social institution were known to people and were almost impossible to impose even though one knew the different ways. 

                                                 

argument in earlier chapter. Japanese conservatives also in the similar position. Korean feminists have somewhat different position that “in the representation of ‘comfort women’ issue, nationalist logic deprived and appropriated the violence against women in colony/war” (Lee 2015, 50). For these position, see Kim (2006); Kang and Yamasida (1993).

²⁶¹ This reorganization of whole society happened in both Koreas. See Armstrong (2003); Moon (2005) ²⁶² Some call it ‘molding minds’ (Garon 1997), others call it ‘mass dictatorship’ (Lim 2004).

Longing for democratization was not diminished under those environments. People iearned to find out new ways to build institutions, rules, and society. Faced with the massive nation omnipresent even in everyday lives, the dissents successively created counter identity to fight the overpowering nation-state.^[2] Before people tasted the fruit of democratization, many found that the reflections of themselves appeared in the mirror looked very like the figure that they have hated so much.^[3] The comfort women movement, in spite of many of its trials and errors, can be a start point to discuss how a social movement organization can deal with the hegemonic discourse. The analysis in this chapter and whole dissertation is an attempt to articulate those processes.  

         During the time when ‘comfort women’ survivors couldn’t tell anyone what they had experienced during the war, the collective memory in South Korea thought voluntary corps were the historic ‘comfort women’. The investigation of the usage of two terms confirms that not long after the liberation and until the democratization in Korea, the term ‘comfort women’ had referred to prostitutes more often working around military bases, and the term ‘voluntary corps’ had referred to the historic ‘comfort women’. 

         As democratic movements progressed not only various organizations emerged but also different individual and collective identities that were not allowed and even not realized turned up. Though minjung has played a central role in creating a counter hegemonic identity during the democratization in Korea, there grew other types of identities around the minjung identity: students, workers, Christians, women, Marxists, nationalists, and even liberals. In the initial period of comfort women movements, even before the Korean Council was established, the first testimony of comfort women survivor was delivered, the Wednesday Demonstration started and even before the difference between voluntary corps and comfort women is not a common sense, we saw that there were many attempts to embrace ‘comfort women’ in the various narratives of different collective identities by diverse artists, novelist, dancers, poets and movie directors. In the initial period of the movements, we can find the both nationalist and feminist description and definition of the issue on the statements. 

         As media began to show interest in the comfort women issue after the former comfort women delivered testimony what she experienced during the war, the movement for comfort women finally launched. 

Another change is reactionary. Of course, this reactionary state-centered nationalism was not created by directly responding to the comfort women's movement, but the comfort women issue became the most difficult and sensitive issue to deal with for this reactionary groups. It is worthwhile to point out that the time when the New Right's view on history has begun to matter was begun with a commenting on comfort women that they were prostitutes by a renowned economist of New Right on a TV debate. Of course, if we look at such a process, the issue of comfort women is one of the most important strains that weave the Korean society and it can be seen as an ideology like religious belief. However, on the one hand, when Korean politicians and the media were in a disadvantageous situation, these historical issues were also used as means of escaping the crisis.     

.       In conclusion, if we look at the relationship between the comfort women movement and the Korean nationalism discourse, even in Korean society, which is known to be composed of a relatively single nation and is believed by the members of the community that has a very strong exclusive and racial nationalism, nationalism is constantly reexamined and evolving in various directions. Therefore, various issues that constitute nationalism, including the issue of comfort women, are central to the identity of Koreans, and it is therefore very difficult to use them for political reasons.

         The changes and impacts of the comfort women 's discourse in Korean society have the advantage of being extended to other studies. For example, how the Japanese, Chinese, and American media deal with these historical issues and how discourse strategies of historical movement organizations in Korea are introduced and accepted when translated into other languages and if it is analyzed, it could provide a more useful analysis of how the United States, which is deeply involved in East Asia and East Asia, has dealt with historical problems and how they can develop.          

---

[1] Most well-known critic in this position is Soh (2008). She argues that the Korean movement groups and media created the fiction of all the comfort women were initially recruited as voluntary corps. I disputed this

[2] See Abelmann (1996); Lee (2007a); Koo (2001).

[3] For this line of criticism on the dissidents, see Lim (2000)

=====

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

 

• Abelmann, Nancy. 1996. Echos of the Past, Epics of Dissent: A South Korean Social Movement. Berkeley: University of California Press. 
• Agamben, Giorgio. 1998. Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life. Translated by Daniel HellerRoazen. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Original edition, Giorgio Agamben. Homo sacer: 
• Il potere sovrano e la nuda vita, Guilio Einaudi, 1995. 
• Akaha, T. 2008. "The Nationalist Discourse in Contemporary Japan: The Role of China and Korea in the Last Decade." Pacific Focus no. 23 (2):156-188.  
• Althusser, Louis. 2006. "Ideology and ideological State Apparatuses (Notes towards an Investigation)." In Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. Aakar Books. 
• Anderson, Benedict. 2006. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. Rev. ed. London & New York: Verso. 
• Andrews, Kenneth T. 2001. "Social Movements and Policy Implementation: The Mississippi Civil Rights Movement and the War on Poverty, 1965 to 1971." American Sociological Review no. 66 (1). 
• ———. 2004. Freedom is a Constant Struggle: the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement and the Legacy. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. 
• Armstrong, Charles K. 2003. The North Korean Revolution, 1945-1950, Studies of the East Asian Institute. Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press. 
• Baek, Woo-am. 1989. Yeoja Jeongsindae [Women volunteer corps]. Seoul: Cheongdam Munhaksa. Original edition, 백우암. 『여자 정신대』. 서울: 청담문학사, 1989. . 
• Breen, John. 2008. Yasukuni, the War dead and the Struggle for Japan's Past. New York: Columbia University Press. 
• Brubaker, Rogers. 1996. Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
• ———. 1999. "The Manichean Myth: Rethinking the Distinction between "Civic" and "Ethnic" 
• Nationalism." In Nation and National Identity: The European Experience in Perspective, edited by Hanspeter Kriesl, Klaus Armingeon, Hannes Slegrist and Andreas Wimmer, 55-72. Zürich: Verlag Rüegger. 
• ———. 2004. Ethnicity without Groups. Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press. 
• Bukh, Alexander. 2015. "Takeshima and the Northern Territones in Japan's nationalism." New Zealand International Review no. 40 (3):9-10. 
• Byun, Young-Joo. 1995. Najeun Moksori [The Murmuring] (Documentary Film). Korea: Yeonghwa Jinheung Wiwonhoe. 
• Caiger, John. 1969. "Ienaga Saburo and the First Postwar Japanese History Textbook." Modern Asian Studies no. 3:1-16. 
• Calhoun, Craig J. 1997. Nationalism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 
• Carletti, Francesco. 1964. My Voyage around the World. New York: Pantheon Books. 
• Castells, Manuel. 1997. The Power of Identity. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. 
• Chai, Alice Y. 1993. "Asian-Pacific Feminist Coalition Politics: The Chongsindae/Jugunianfu ("Comfort Women") Movement." Korean Studies no. 17:67-91. 
• Chang, Whi. 2002. Pak Young-hyo and Yu Kil-chun's Concept of Human Rights : Individual rights or civic rights? , Political Science, Yonsei University. 
• Cheung, M. 2010. "Political Survival and the Yasukuni Controversy in Sino-Japanese Relations." Pacific Review no. 23 (4):527-548.  
• Cho, Donggeol. 1994. "Geundae Chogiui Yeoksa Insik [Perception of history in the early modern Korea]." In Han-gugui Yeoksagawa Yeoksahak [Historians and History in Korea], edited by Donggeol Cho, Yeong-u Han and Chan-seung Park. Seoul: Changjakgwa Bipyeong [Creation 
• and Critics]. 조동걸. 「근대 초기의 역사 인식」. 조동걸, 한영우, 박찬승 엮음. 『한국의 역사가와 역사학』. 서울: 창작과 비평, 1994. 
• Cho, Hae Jeong, and Wooyoung Lee. 2000. Talbundan Sidaereul Yeolmyeo (Opening the post-division era). Seoul: Sam-in. 조한혜정, 이우영. 『탈분단 시대를 열며』. 서울: 삼인, 2000. 
• Choi, Chungmoo. 1998. "Nationalism and Construction of Gender in Korea." In Dangerous Women: Gender & Korean Nationalism, edited by Elaine H. Kim and Chungmoo Choi, 9-31. New York and London: Routledge. 
• Choi, In-hun. 1964. Hoesaekin [Gray man]. Seoul Samjungdang. Original edition, 최인훈. 『회색인』. 서울: 삼중당, 1964. 
• Choi, Jangjip. 1993. Han-guk Minjujuui Iron [A Theory of Korean Democracy]. Seoul: Hangilsa. 최장집. 『한국 민주주의 이론』. 서울: 한길사, 1993. 
• Choi, Seonggyu. 2000. Ilbonui Yeoksaneun Eopda: Ilbon Oegok Yeoksa Gyogwaseoreul Gobalhanda (There is no History in Japan: Revealing of the Bias in Japanese History Textbook). Seoul: Asia Munhwasa. 
• Original edition, 최성규. 일본의 역사는 없다: 일본 왜곡 역사 교과서를 고발한다. 서 울: 아시아문화사, 2000. 
• Choi, Sung-jae. 2005. "The Politics of the Dokdo Issue." Journal of Asian Studies no. 5 (3):465-94. 
• Chou, Chih-Chieh. 2003. "An Emerging Transnational Movement in Women's Human Rights: Campaign of Nongovernmental Organizations on "Comfort Women" Issue in East Asia." Journal of Economic & Social Research no. 5 (1):153-181. 
• Chung, Chin-Sung. 2001. "Gun Wianbu/Jeongsindaeui Gaenyeome Gwanhan Gochal [Thoughts on the concept of military comfort women/volunteer corps]." Sahoewa Yeoksa [Society and History] no. 60:34-59. 정진성. 「군위안부/정신대의 개념에 관한 고찰」. 『사회와 역사』 60권, 
• 2001: 34-59. 
• Cogan, John J., and Water Enloe. 1987. "The Japanese History Textbook Controversy Revisited." Social Education no. 51 (6):450-454. 
• Conor, Walker. 1990. "When is a Nation?" Ethnic and Racial Studies no. 13 (1):92-103. 
• Coomaraswamy, Radhika. 1996. Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, its Causes and Consequences, Ms. Radhika Coomaraswamv, in accordance with Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1994/45 Report on the Mission to the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the Republic of Korea and Japan on the Issue of Military Sexual Slavery in Wartime. 
• Cummings, Woo. 1999. The Developmental State. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 
• Diani, Mario. 1997. "Social Movements and Social Capital: A Network Perspective on Movement Outcomes." Mobilization: An International Quarterly no. 2 (2):129-141. 
• Diani, Mario, and Ivano Bison. 2004. "Organizations, Coalitions, and Movements." Theory and Society no. 33:281-309. 
• Doak, Kevin. 1997. "What Is a Nation and Who Belongs? National Narratives and the Ethnic Imagination in Twentieth-Century Japan." American Historical Review no. 102:283-309. 
• ———. 2008. "A Religious Perspective on the Yasukuni Shrine Controversy." In Yasukuni, the War Dead and the Struggle for Japan's Past, edited by John Breen, 47-69. New York: Columbia University Press. 
• Doak, Kevin M. 1996. "Ethnic Nationalism and Romanticism in Early Twentieth-Century Japan." Journal of Japanese Studies no. 22 (1):77-103. 
• Dower, John W. 1995. "The Bombed: Hiroshimas and Nagasakis in Japanese Memory." Diplomatic History no. 19 (2):275-295. 
• Duara, Prasenjit. 1995. Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 
• Dudden, Alexis. 2008. Troubled Apologies among Japan, Korea, and the United States. New York: Columbia University Press. 
• Duncan, John. 1998. "Proto-Nationalism in Pre-modern Korea." In Perspectives on Korea, edited by Sang-Oak Lee and Duk-Soo Park. Sydney: Wild Peony Press. 
• Eksteins, Modris. 1989. Rites of Spring: the Great War and the Birth of the Modern Age. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 
• Em, Henry. 1999. "Minjok as a Construct." In Colonial Modernity in Korea, edited by Gi-Wook Shin; Michael Robinson, 336-361. Cambridge and London: Harvard University. 
• Eykholt, Mark. 2000. "Aggression, Victimization, and Chinese Historiography of the Nanjing Massacre." In The Nanjing Massacre in History and Historiography, edited by Joshua A. Fogel, xvi, 248 p. Berkeley & London: University of California Press. 
• Field, Norma. 1997. "War and Apology: Japan, Asia, the Fiftieth, and After." Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique no. 5 (1):1-49. 
• Finlayson, Alan. 1998. "Ideology, Discourse and Nationalism." Journal of Political Ideologies no. 3 (1):99-118. 
• Fogel, Joshua A. 2000. The Nanjing Massacre in History and Historiography. Berkeley & London: University of California Press. 
• Fujitani, Takashi. 1998. Splendid Monarchy: Power and Pageantry in Modern Japan. Berkeley: University of California Press. 
• Fukuyama, Francis. 1992. The End of History and Last Man. New York: Free Press. 
• Gallicchio, Marc S. 2007. The Unpredictability of the Past: Memories of the Asia-Pacific War in U.S./East Asian Relations, American encounters/global interactions. Durham: Duke University Press. 
• Garon, Sheldon M. 1997. Molding Japanese Minds: the State in Everyday Life. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 
• Geisler, Michael E. 2005. National Symbols, Fractured Identities: Contesting the National Narrative. Middlebury & Lebanon: University Press of New England. 
• Gellner, Ernest. 1983. Nations and nationalism, New perspectives on the past. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 
• Goodwin, Jeff, James M. Jasper, and Francesca Polletta. 2001. Passionate Politics: Emotions and Social Movements. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 
• Greenfeld, Liah. 1992. Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity. Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press. 
• Gries, Peter Hays. 2005. "Nationalism, Indignation and China's Japan Policy." The SAIS Review of International Affairs no. 25 (2):105-114. 
• Grinker, Roy Richard. 1998. Korea and Its Futures: Unification and the Unfinished War. New York: St. 
• Martin's Press. 
• Halbwachs, Maurice. 1992. On Collective Memory. Translated by Lewis A. Coser. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 
• Ham, Seok-heon. 1950/1961. DDeuseuro Bon Han-gukyeoksa [Korean hisotry viewed through the meaning]. Seoul: Sunguisa. Original edition, 함석헌. 『뜻으로 본 한국 역사』. 서울: 숭의사, 1950/1961. 
• Han-guk Jeongsindae Munje Daechaek Hyeobuihoe. 2001. Gangjero Kkeullyeogan Joseonin Gun Wianbudeul: Gieokeuro Dasi sseuneun yeoksa [Forcedly drafted Korean military comfort women: history rewritten from memories]. Vol. 4, Jeungeonjip [Compiled testimonies]. Seoul: Pulbit. Original edition, 한국정신대문제대책협의회, 2000년 일본군성노예전범여성국제법정 한국위원회 증언팀. 『강제로 끌려간 조선인 군 위안부들 4: 기억으로 쓰는 역사』. 서울: 풀빛, 2001. 
• ———. 2004. Ggeutnaji Aneun Oechim: Ilbongun 'wianbu' munje haegyeoleul wihan suyo siwi seongmyeongseo moeumjip, 1992nyeon 1wol 8il 1cha-2004nyeon 3wol 17il 600cha [Unended Outcry: Collection of 
• Statements for Wedness Demonstration for resolving 'comfort women' for Japanese army issue, from the first, 
• Jan. 8, 1992 to the 600th, Mar. 17, 2002]. Seoul: Yeoseonggwa In-gwon [Women and Human 
• Rights]. 한국정신대문제대책협의회. 『끝나지 않은 외침: 일본군 ‘위안부’ 문제 해결
• 을 위한 수요 시위 성명서 모음집, 1992년 1월 8일 1차-2004년 3월 17일 600차』. 서울: 
• 여성과 인권, 2004.  
• Han-guk Jeongsindae Munje Daechaek Hyeobuihoe, and Han-guk jeongsindae Yeon-guso. 1999. 
• Gangjero Kkeulryeogan Joseonin Wianbudeul [Forcedly Drafted Korean Military Comfort Women]. Vol. 3, Jeungeonjip [Compiled testimonies]. Seoul: Hanul. Original edition, 한국정신대문제대책협의
• 회, 정신대연구소. 『강제로 끌려간 조선인 군 위안부들 3』. 서울: 한울, 1999. 
• Han-guk Jeongsindae Munje Daechaek Hyeobuihoe, and Jeongsindae Yeon-guhoe. 1993. Gangjero 
• Kkeulryeogan Joseonin Gun Wianbudeul [Focedly Drafted Korean military comfort women]. Vol. 1, 
• Jeungeonjip [Compiled testimonies]. Seoul: Hanul. Original edition, 한국정신대문제대책협의
• 회, 정신대연구회. 『강제로 끌려간 조선인 군 위안부들』. 서울: 한울, 1993. 
• ———. 1997. Gangjero Kkeulryeogan Joseonin Gun Wianbudeul  [Focedly Drafted Korean military comfort women]. Vol. 2, Jeungeonjip [Compiled testimonies]. Seoul: Hanul. Original edition, 한국정신대문
• 제대책협의회, 정신대연구회. 『강제로 끌려간 조선인 군 위안부들』. 서울: 한울, 
• 1997. 
• Han-guk Jeongsindae Munju Daechaek Hyeobuihoe, 2000 nyon Ilbongun Seong Noye Jeonbeom 
• Yeoseong Gukje Beopjeong, and Han-guk Jeongsindae Yeon-guhoe. 2001. Gangjero 
• Kkeulryeogan Joseon Gunwianbudeul [Forcedly drafted Korean military comfort women]. Vol. 5, Jeungeonjip 
• [Compiled testimonies]. Seoul: Pulbit. Original edition, 한국정신대문제대책협의회 2000년
• 일본군성노예선범여성국제법정, 한국정신대연구회. 『강제로 끌려간 조선 군위안
• 부들 5』. 서울: 풀빛, 2001. 
• Hart, Dennis. 1999. "Creating the National Other: Opposing Images of Nationalism in South and North Korean Education." Korean Studies no. 23:68-93. 
• Hata, Ikuhiko. 1998. "The Flawed U.N. Report on Comfort Women." In Women and women's issues in post World War II Japan, edited by Edward R. Beauchamp, viii, 354 p. New York: Garland. 
• ———. 2007. No Organized or Forced Recruitment: Misconceptions about Comfort Women and the Japanese Military. Society for the Dissemination of Historical Fact  
• He, Yinan. 2007. "Remembering and Forgetting the War: Elite Mythmaking, Mass Reaction, and Sino-Japanese Relations, 1950-2006." History & Memory no. 19 (2):43-74. 
• Heo, Mun-sun. 1989. Bunnoui Byeok [Wall of Fury]. Seoul: Jayusidaesa. Original edition, 허문순. 『분노의 벽』. 서울: 자유시대사, 1989. . 
• Herzfeld, Michael. 1997. Cultural Intimacy: Social Poetics in the Nation-State New York: Routledge. 
• Hicks, George. 1996. "The Comfort Women." In The Japanese Wartime Empire, 1931-1945, edited by Peter Duus, Ramon Hawley Myers, Mark R. Peattie, Wanyao Zhou and Japan-United States Friendship Commission., xi vii, 375 p. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 
• Hicks, George L. 1995. The Comfort Women: Japan's Brutal Regime of Enforced Prostitution in the Second World War. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. 
• Hirota, Kazuko. 1975. Shogen Kiroku: Jugun Ianfu/Kangofu [Testimonial records: military comfort women/nurses]. Tokyo: Shinjinbutsuoraisha. 
• Hobsbawm, Eric J. 1990. Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality 2nd ed. 
• Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
• Hobsbawm, Eric J., and Terrence O. Ranger. 1983. The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
• Hogan, Michael J. 1996. Hiroshima in History and Memory. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press. 
• Hong, Yang-Hee. 2013. "Han-guk Geundae Yeoseongsa Yeon-guui Hyeonhwanggwa Jeonmang. 
• 2007-2013 [Present and Future of Historiography of Modern Women/Gender, 2007-2013]." Yeoseonggwa Yeoksa [Women and History] no. 19:67-103. 홍양희. 「한국 근대 여성사 연구의 현황과 전망 2007-2013」. 『여성과 역사』 19호, 2013: 67-103. 
• Hunt, Scott, Robert D. Benford, and David A. Snow. 1994. "Identity Fields: Framing Processes and the Social Construction of Movement Identities." In New Social Movements: From Ideology to Identity, edited by Enrique Larana, Hank Johnston and Joseph R. Gusfield, 185-208. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. 
• Hutton, Patrick H. 1993. History as an Art of Memory. Hanover: University Press of New England. 
• Ienaga, Saburo. 1993-1994. "The Glorification of War in Japanese Education." International Security no. 18 (3):113-144. 
• Igarashi, Yoshikuni. 2000. Bodies of Memory: Narratives of War in Postwar Japanese Culture, 1945-1970. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 
• Ilbon Gyogwaseo Barojapgi Undong Bonbu. 2003. Globalhwawa Ingwon, Gyogwaseo: Donggyong Pyeonghwa Forum (Globalization, Human Rights, and Textbook: Tokyo Peace Forum). Seoul: Yeoksabipyeongsa. Original edition, 일본교과서바로잡기 운동본부. 글로벌화와 인권, 교과서: 동경 평화 포럼. 서울: 창작과 비평사, 2003. 
• Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform. 1998. The Restoration of a National History: Why was the Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform Established and What are Its Goals? Tokyo: The Society. 
• Jenkins, J. Craig, and Charles Perrow. 1977. "Insurgency of the Powerless: Farm Worker Movements (1946-1972)." American Sociological Review no. 42 (2):249-268. 
• Jeon, Jae Ho. 2000. Bandongjeok Geundaejuuija Park Chunghee [Reactionary Modernist Park Chunghee]. Seoul: Chaeksesang. Original edition, 전재호. 『반동적 근대주의자 박정희』. 서울: 책세상, 2000. 
• Jeong, Hyeon-woong. 1989. Ileobeorin Gang [Lost River]. Seoul: Haengrim Chulpan. Original edition, 정현웅. 『잃어버린 강』. 서울: 행림출판, 1989. 
• Jeongsindae Munje Silmu Daechaekban. 1992. Ilje Ha Gundae Wianbu Siltae Josa Junggan Bogoseo [Interim Report on Sexual Slave of Japanese Military]. Seoul: Jeongsindae Munje Silmu Daechaekban. Original edition, 정신대문제실무대책반. 『일제하 군대 위안부 실태조사 중간 보고 서』. 서울: 정신대문제실무대책반, 1992. 
• Johnson, Charlmers. 1982. MITI and the Japanese Miracle: The Growth of Industrial Policy, 1925-1975. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 
• Jung, Min-woo. 2010. "Cho/Gukjeok Sidae Minjokjuui Jeongchihakgwa Daejung Munhwa: 'Jaebum Sageon'ui Uimi Guseongeul Jungsimeuro ['Jaebum Controversy', politics of nationalism and popular culture]." Eonrongwa Sahoe [Media and Society] no. 18 (3):35-70. 정민우. 「초/국적 시대 민족의 정치학과 대중 문화: ‘재범 사건’의 의미 구성을 중심으로」. 『언론과 사회』 18호, 2010: 35-70. 
• Kang, Jung In. 2011. "Bakjeonghei Daetongryeongui Minjujuui Damron Bunseok: "Haengjeongjeok", "Minjokjeok", "Han-gukjeok" Minjujuuireul Jungsimeuro. [An Analysis of Park Chung-hee's Discourses on Democracy: Focusing on his "Administrative," "National" and "Korean-style" Democracy ]." Sogang Journal of Philosophy no. 27:287-321. 강정인. 「박정희 대통령의 민주주의 담론 분석: “행정적”, “민족적”, “한국적”, 민주주의를 중심으로」. 『철학논집』 27호, 2011: 287-321. 
• Kang, Sun-mi, and Youngae Yamasida. 1993. "Cheonhwangje Gukgawa Seongpokryeok [The state and sexual violence under the rule of the emperor system of Japan: an essay on the problem of "comfort women" from a feminist perspective]." Han-guk Yeoseonghak [Korea Women's Studies] no. 9:52-89. 강선미, 영애 야마시다. 「천황제 국가와 성폭력」. 『한국 여성학』 
• 9호, 1993: 52-89. 
• Kawada, Fumiko. 1987. Akagawara no Ie : Chōsen kara Kita Jūgun Ianpu [House with a red tiled roof: 
• military comfort woman came from Joseon]. Tokyo: Chikuma Shobō. Original edition, 川田文子. 
• 『赤瓦の家 : 朝鮮から来た従軍慰安婦』. 東京: 筑摩書房, 1987,. 
• ———. 1992. Ppalgan Kiwajip: Joseoneseo On Jonggunwianbu Iyagi [House with a red tiled roof: the story of a military comfort woman from Joseon]. Seoul: Maeilgyeongje Sinmunsa. Original edition, 가와다 
• 후미코. 한우정 옮김. 『빨간 기와집: 조선에서 온 종군위안부 이야기』. 서울: 매일경
• 제신문사, 1992. 
• Keck, Maragret E., and Kathryn Sikkink. 1998. Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 
• Kendall-Taylor, Andrea, and Erica Frantz. 2014. "Mimicking Democracy to Prolong Autocracies." The Washington Quarterly no. 37 (4):71-84.  
• Kim, Dae-sang. 1975. Iljeha Kangje Ilryeok Sutalsa [A history of the exploitation of forced labor under imperial Japan]. Seoul: Jeong-eumsa. 
• Kim, Dong-No. 2010. "Han-guk Jeongchi Jidojadeului Minjokjuuiwa Jeongchi Jenryak: Bak Jeonghuiwa Gim 
• Daejungui Bihyo,” [Nationalism and Political Strategy of Korean Political Leaders: A 
• Comparison of Park Chung-hee and Kim Dae-jung] Hyunsanggwa Insik. 김동노, 「한국 정치 
• 지도자들의 민족주의와 정치 전략: 박정희와 김대중의 비교」. 『현상과 인식』 2010.  
• Kim, Eunkyung. 2010. "Ilbongun 'Wianbu' Ginyeomgwanui 'Wianbu' Jaehyungwa Gieok Jeongchi [Representation of the 'Comfort Women' and the politics of memory in the memorial halls for Japanese Military 'Comfort Women']." Han-gukhak Yeon-gu [Korean Studies] no. 35:177-203. 
• 김은경. 「일본군 ‘위안부’ 기념관의 ‘위안부’ 재현과 기억 정치」. 『한국학 연구』. 35집, 2010: 177-203. 
• Kim, Hyojun. 2000. Geundae Han-gukui Gukgasasang: Gukgwon Hoebokgwa Mingwonsuho [Theories of state in modern Korea: restoration of sovereignty and protecting people's right]. Seoul: Cheolhakgwa 
• Hyeonsilsa. 김효준. 『근대 한국의 국가사상: 국권 회복과 민권수호』. 서울: 철학과 현실사, 2000.  
• Kim, Hyun Sook. 1997. "History and Memory: The 'Comfort Women' Controversy." Position no. 5 (1):73-106. 
• Kim, Hyung-chan, and Dong-kyu Kim. 2005. Human Remolding in North Korea: A Social History of Education. Lanham: University Press of America. 
• Kim, Il-myon. 1976. Tenno no guntai to Chosenjin ianfu [The Emperor's Forces and Korean Comfort Women]. 
• Tokyo: Sanichi Shobo. Original edition, 金 一勉. 『天皇の軍隊と朝鮮人慰安婦』 . 一書房, 1976. 
• Kim, Jeong-Gyu. 2015. "Han-gukin Minjokjuuiwa Sangjingjeok Pokryeokui Uidohaji Aneun Gyeolgwa: Oegukin Ijuja-e Daehan Pyeon-gyeongwa Chabyeol [The uninteded consequence of practice of Korean nationalism and symbolic volence: focusing on prejudice and discrimination against foreign migrants]." Sahoe Iron [social theory]. 김정규. 「한국인 민족주의와 상징적 폭력의 의도하지 않은 결과: 외국인 이주자에 대한 편견과 차별」. 『사회 이론』, 2015.  
• Kim, Jeongran. 2006. "Ilbon-gun 'Wianbu' Undonge Natanan Minjokjuuijeok Gyeonghyang [Nationalist tendency appeared in the Japanese military "comfort women" movements]." Cheolhakgwahyeonsil [Philosophy and reality] no. 69:108-118. 김정란. 「일본군 ‘위안부’ 운동에 나타난 민족주의적 경향」. 『철학과현실』 69집, 2006: 108-118.  
• Kim, Mikyoung. 2014. "Memorializing Comfort Women: Memory and Human Rights in KoreaJapan Relations." Asian Politics & Policy no. 6 (1):83-96.  
• Kim, Sae-Eun. 2010. "Han-guk Bosusinmunui Yusaseonggwa Chabyeolseong: Chosun-JoongangDongailbo Saseolui Inyeomseongeul Jungsimeuro [The Similarity and Difference of Korean Conservative Newspapers: An Analysis of Ideology in Chosun-Jungang-Donga Dailys' Editorial]." Midieo, Jendeo & Munhwa [Media, Gender & Culture] no. 15:37-78. 김새은. 「한국 보수신문의 유사성과 차별성: 조선-중앙-동아일보 사설의 이념성을 중심으로」. 『미디어, 젠더 & 문화』 15집, 2010:37-78 
• Kim, Sookyung. 2012. "Racism in the global era: Analysis of Korean media discourse around migrants, 1990–2009." Discourse & Society no. 23 (6):657-678. 
• ———. 2015. "Ijumin Munjeui Jeongchijeok Talinyeomhwa: Midieui Inyeomjeok Seonghyange Ttareun Ijunodongjawa Gyeolhoniminja Peureim Bunseok (1990-2009) [Political Ideology and Attitudes toward Immigration: Frame Analysis of Conservative and Progressive Korean Media on Migrant Workers and Marriage Immigrants (1990-2009)]." Han-guk Sahoehak [Korean Sociology]. 김수경. 「이주민 문제의 정치적 탈이념화: 미디어의 이념적 성향에 따른 이주노동자와 결혼이민자 프레임 분석」. 『한국 사회학』 2015. 
• Kim, Sungmoon. 2014b. Confucian Democracy in East Asia: Theory and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
• Kim, Tongt'aek. 2003. "Dongnip" Sinmune Natanan Gukgawa Gukminui Gaenyeom (Concepts of state and nation expressin "the Independence Daily". In Han-gukui Geundaewa Geundae 
• Gyeongheom (Modernity and its experiences in Korea). Ewha Womans University, Korea. 김동택. 
• 「“독립” 신문에 나타난 국가와 국민의 개념」. 『한국의 근대와 근대 경험』. 서울: 이 화여자대학 출판부, 2003. 
• Kim, Youngjak. 1989. Hanmal Nationalism Yeon-gu: Sasanggwa Hyunsil (A study on nationalism of late Chosun dynasty: thoughts and reality). Seoul: Chungye Yeon-guso. Original edition, 김영작. 『한
• 말 내셔널리즘 연구: 사상과 현실』. 서울: 청계연구소, 1989. 
• Klandersmans, Bert. 1992. "The Social Construction of Protest and Multiorganizational Fields." In Frontiers in Social Movement Theory, edited by Aldon D. Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller, 77103. New Haven: Yale University Press. 
• Kohli, Atul. 2004. State-directed Development: Political Power and Industrialization in the Global Periphery. 
• Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press. 
• Kohn, Hans. 1944. The Ideal of Nationalism: A study in Its Origins and Background. New York: Collier Books. 
• Kokusai Jinken Kenkyukai. 1993. Ianfu, kyosei renko sekinin to tsugunai: Nihon no sengo hosho e no 
• kokusaiho to Kokuren no taio (Responsibility of Atonement for comfort women and Forced Draft: Japan's postwar compensation to the support of the United Nations and international law). Tokyo: Shinsensha. 
• Original edition, 国際人権研究会編. 慰安婦・強制連行責任と償い : 日本の戦後補償への国際法と国連の対応. 東京: 新泉社, 1993. 
• Koo, Hagen. 1993a. State and Society in Contemporary Korea. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 
• ———. 1993b. "Strong State and Contentious State." In State and Society in Contemporary Korea, edited by Hagen Koo, 231-249. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 
• ———. 2001. Korean Workers: the Culture and Politics of Class Formation. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 
• Kornhauser, William. 1959. The Politicis of Mass Society. Glencoe: The Free Press. 
• Koselleck, Reinhard. 2005. Future Past: On the Semantics of Historical Time. New York: Columbia University Press. 
• Kriesi, Hanspeter, Ruud Koopmans, Jan Willem Duyvendak, and Marco G. Guigni. 1992. "New Social Movements and Political Opportunities in Western Europe." Eurpean Journal of Political Research no. 22:219-244. 
• Krippendorff, Klaus. 2004. Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. 
• Kristof, Nicholas D. 1998. "The Problem of Memory." Foreign Affairs no. 77 (6). 
• Kwon, Bodrae, and Junghwan Chun. 2012. 1960 Nyeoneul Mutda: Bak Jeonghui Sidaeui Munhwa 
• Jeongchiwa Jiseong [Questioning 1960: cultural politics and intellect in Park Chunghee era]. Seoul: 
• Cheonnyeonui Sangsang. Original edition, 권보드래, 천정환. 『1960년을 묻다: 박정희 시
• 대의 문화정치와 지성』. 서울: 천년의 상상, 2012. 
• Kwon, Hyuk-Bum. 2000. Minjokjuuiwa Baljeonui Hwansang (Nationalism and fantasy of development). 
• Seoul: Sol. 권혁범. 『민족주의와 발전의 환상』. 서울: 솔, 2000.  
• Kymlicka, Will. 2002. Contemporary Political Philosophy: an Introduction. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. 
• Laitin, David D. 2003. "The Perestorikan Challenge to Social Science." Politics & Society no. 31:163184. 
• Lasswell, Harold D. 1927. Propaganda Technique in the World War. New York: Knopf. 
• ———. 1938. "A Provisional Classification of Symbol Data." Psychiatry no. 1:197-204. 
• ———. 1941. "The World Attention Sruvey: An Exploration of the Possibilities of Studying Attention Being Given to the United States by newspapers Abroad." Public Opinion Quarterly no. 5:456-462. 
• Lee, Chŏng-sik. 1963. The Politics of Korean Nationalism. Berkeley: University of California Press. 
• Lee, Jiyun. 2010. "Han-guk Minjokjuuie Daehan Dayanghan Haeseok Ganeungseong: Jongjok Minjokjuuiwa Jeongchijeok Minjokjuuiui Jeophap [Possible interpretations on Korean nationalism: the connection between ethnic and political nationalism]." In-gan Hwangyeong 
• Mirae (Human, environment and future) no. 4:95-121. 이지윤. 「한국 민족주의에 대한 다양한 
• 해석 가능성: 종족 민족주의와 정치적 민족주의의 정합」. 『인간 환경 미래』 4집, 
• 2010: 95-121. 
• Lee, Na-Young. 2010. "Ilbon-gun 'Wianbu' Undong: Poseuteu/Sikmin-gukgaui Yeoksajeok 
• Hyeonjaeseong [Women's Movement for/on 'Comfort Women': Historical Present in the 
• Context of Postcolonial Nation-State]." Asea Yeon-gu [Asian Studies] no. 55 (3):41-78. 이나영. 「일본군 ‘위안부’ 운동: 포스트/식민-국가의 역사적 현재성」.  『아세아 연구』 55집 3
• 호, 2010: 41-78. 
• ———. 2015. "Minjokjuuiwa Jender: Dojeon-gwa Byeon-ghyeongeul Wihan Ironjeok Jihyeongdo Geurigi [Nationalism and gender: critical mapping on theoretical debates and feminist challenges]." Han-guk Yeoseonghak [Korea Women's Studies] no. 31 (2):213-256. 이나영. 「민족
• 주의와 젠더: 도전과 변형을 위한 이론적 지형도 그리기」. 『한국 여성학』 31집 2호, 
• 2015: 213-256. 
• Lee, Namhee. 2002. "The South Korean Student Movements: Undongkwon as a Counterpublic Sphere." In Korean Society: Civil Society, Democracy and the State, edited by Charles Armstrong, 132-164. New York: Routledge. 
• ———. 2007a. The Making of Minjung: Democracy and the Politics of Representation in South Korea. Ithaca: 
• Cornell University Press. 
• Lee, O-Young. 1962. Heuk Soge Jeo Baram Soge [In the soil in the wind], Seoul. Hyeonamsa. Original 
• edition, 이어령. 『흙 속에 저 바람 속에』. 서울: 현암사, 1962. 
• Lee, Sin-Cheol. 2007b. "Korea-China-Japan Historical Disputes: Structure and Alternatives." Korea Journal no. 47 (4):221-251. 
• Lee, Yung Dug. 1974. Education Renovation in the Republic of Korea. In Experiments and innovations in education. Paris: The Unesco Press. 
• Levitsky, Sandra R. 2007. "Niche Activism: Constructing a Unified Movement Identity in a Heterogeneous Organizational Field." Mobilization: An International Quarterly no. 12 (3):271286. 
• Lie, John. 1995. "The Transformation of Sexual Work in  20th-century Korea." Gender & Society no. 
• 9 (3):310-327.  
• Lim, Jie-Hyun. 1999. Minjojuuineun Banyeokida [Nationalism is treason]. Seoul: Sonamu. Original edition, 
• 임지현. 『민족주의는 반역이다』. 서울: 소나무, 1999. 
• ———. 2000. Urianui Facism [Facism in us]. Seoul: Samin. Original edition, 임지현. 『우리안의 파시 즘』. 서울: 삼인, 2000. 
• ———. 2004. Daejung Dokjae: Gangjewa Dong-ui Saieseo [Mass dictatorship: between force and consent]. 
• Seoul: Chaeksesang. Original edition, 임지현. 『대중독재: 강제와 동의의 사이에서』. 서 울: 책세상, 2004. 
• Martin, Helen. 1936. "Nationalism and Children's Literature." Library Quaterly no. 6:405-418. 
• Maruyama, Masao. 1963. "Theory and Psychology of Untra-nationalism." In Thought and Behaviour in Modern Japanese Politics, edited by Ivan Morris, 1-24. London: Oxford University Press. 
• Original edition, the magazine Sekai, May 1946. 
• McAdam, Doug. 1983. "Tactical Innovation and the Pace of Insurgency." American Sociological Review no. 48:735-754. 
• ———. 1999. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970. 2nd ed. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press. 
• McAdam, Doug, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald. 1996. "Opportunities, Mobilizing Structure, and Framing Process - toward a Synthetic, Comparative Perspective on Social Movements." 
• In Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framing, edited by Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald. 
• Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. 
• McAdam, Doug, and Ronnelle Paulsen. 1993. "Specifying the Relationship Between Social Ties and Activism." American Journal of Sociology no. 99:640-667. 
• McAdam, Doug, Robert J. Sampson, Simon Weffer, and Heather MacIndoe. 2005. "'There will be Fighting in the Streets': The Distorting Lens of Social Movement Theory." Mobilization: An International Quarterly no. 10 (1):1-18. 
• McCarthy, John D., and Mayer N. Zald. 1977. "Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory." American Journal of Sociology no. 82 (6):1212-41. 
• McDiarmid, John. 1937. "Presidential Inaugural Addresses: A Study in Verbal Symbols." Public Opinion Quarterly no. 1:79-82. 
• McDougall, Gay J. 1998. Systematic Rape, Sexual Slavery and Slavery-like Practices during Armed Conflict. In Special Rapporteur to Commission on Human Rights: UN Commission on Human Rights, Sub-commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities. 
• Melucci, Alberto. 1995. "The Process of Collective Identity." In Social Movements and Culture, edited by Hank Johnston and Bert Klandersmans, 41-63. Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis 
• Press. 
• ———. 1996. Challenging Codes: Collective Action in the Information Age, Cambridge Cultural Social Studies. 
• Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. 
• Moon, Katharine H.S. 1999. "South Korean Movements against Militarized Sexual Labor." Asian Survey no. 39 (2):310-327. 
• Moon, Seungsook. 1998. "Begetting the Nation: The Androcentric Discourse of National History and Tradition in South Korea." In Dangerous Women: Gender & Korean Nationalism, edited by Elaine H. Kim and Chungmoo Choi, 33-66. New York and London: Routledge. 
• ———. 2002. "Carving Out Space: Civil Society and the Women's Movement in South Korea." The Journal of Asian Studies no. 61 (2):473-500. 
• ———. 2005. Militarized Modernity and Gendered Citizenship in Korea. Durham: Duke Univeristy Press. 
• Mueller, Carol McClurg. 1994. "Conflict Networks and the Origins of Women's Liberation." In New Social Movements: From Ideology to Identity, edited by Enrique Larana, Hank Johnston and Joseph R. Gusfield, 234-263. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. 
• Nelson, Chrisopher. 2008. Dancing with the Dead: Memory, Performance and Everyday Life in Postwar Okinawa. Durham and London 2008: Duke University Press. 
• Nelson, John K. 2003. "Social Memory as Ritual Practice: Commemorating Spirits of the Military Dead at Yasukuni Shinto Shrine." The Journal of Asian Studies no. 62 (2):443-467. 
• NGO Times, and Civic Movement Communication Center. 2006. Hanguk Min-gan Danche Chongram (Encyclopedia of Korean Association). Seoul: NGO Times. 
• Nishino, Rumiko. 1992. Jugun ianfu : moto heishitachi no shogen [Comfort women: the testimony of former 
• soldiers]. Tokyo: Akashi Shoten. Original edition, 西野留美子. 従軍慰安婦: 元兵士たちの証言. 東京: 明石書店, 1992. 
• ———. 1993. Jugun ianfu to Jugonen Senso: Biruma ianjo keieisha no shogen [Comfort women and fifteen-year war: the testimony of Burma comfort women station owner]. Tokyo: Akashi Shoten. Original edition, 
• 西野留美子. 従軍慰安婦と十五年戦争 : ビルマ慰安所経営者の証言. 東京: 明石書
• 店, 1993. 
• Nora, Pierre, and Lawrence D. Kritzman. 1996. Realms of Memory: Rethinking the French Past. 3 vols, European perspectives. New York: Columbia University Press. 
• Nozaki, Yoshiko. 2002. "Japanese Politics and the History Textbook Controversy, 1982-2001." International Journal of Educational Research no. 37 (6-7):603-622. 
• ———. 2008. War memory, Nationalism and Education in Post-war Japan, 1945-2007: the Japanese History Textbook Controversy and Ienaga Saburo's Court Challenges. London & New York: Routledge. 
• Olick, Jeffrey K. 2003. States of Memory: Continuities, Conflicts, and Transformations in National Retrospection, Politics, history, and culture. Durham: Duke University Press. 
• Olick, Jeffrey K., and Joyce Robinson. 1998. "Social Memory Studies: from "Collective Memory" to Historical Sociology of Mnemonic Practices." Annual Review of Sociology no. 24:105-140. 
• Orr, James Joseph. 2001. The Victim as Hero: Ideologies of Peace and National Identity in Postwar Japan. 
• Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. 
• Özkirimli, Umut. 2005. Contemporary Debates on Nationalism: a Critical Engagement. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. 
• Park, Chung-hee. 1962. Uri Minjogui Nagalgil: Sahoe Jaegeonui Inyeom [Our Nation's Path: Ideology of Social Reconstruction]. Seoul: Dong-A Publishing Company. Original edition, 박정희. 『우리민족의 
• 나갈 길: 사회 재건의 이념』. 서울: 동아출판, 1962. 
• ———. 1969. Bak Jeonghui Daetongnyeong Seonjip 1: Gileul Chajaseo (Uri Minjogui Nagalgil: Sahoe Jaegeonui Inyeom)  [Selected Work of President Park Chung-hee Vol. 1: To Find a Path (Our Nation's Path: 
• Ideology of Social Reconstruction, Seoul: Donga, 1962)]. Seoul: Jimun-gak. Original edition, 박정
• 희, 『박정희 대통령 선집 1: 길을 찾아서』. 서울: 지문각, 1969(『우리 민족의 나아갈 길: 사회 재건의 이념』.서울: 동아출판사, 1962). 
• ———. 1978. Minjok Jungheungui Gil [The Road to National Restoration]. Seoul: Gwangmyeong 
• Chulpansa. Original edition, 박정희 . 『민족중흥의 길』 . 서울: 광명출판사, 1978. 
• ———. 1997. Gukgawa Hyeongmyeonggwa Na [Country, Revolution and I]. Seoul: Jiguchon. Original 
• edition, 박정희. 해설 조갑제. 『국가와 혁명과 나』. 서울: 지구촌, 1997. 
• Park, Jeong-mi. 2011. "Han-guk Jeonjanggi Seongmaemaejeongchaeke Gwanhan Yeon-gu: 
• 'Wiwanso'wa 'Wiwanbu'reul Jungsimeuro [A study on prostitution plicies during the Korean 
• War: focusing on 'comfort stations' and 'comfort women'." Han-guk Yeoseonghak [Korea 
• Women's Studies] no. 27 (2):35-72. 박정미. 「한국 전쟁기 성매매정책에 관한 연구: ‘위안 소’와 ‘위안부’를 중심으로」.『한국 여성학』 27집 2호, 2011: 35-72.  
• Park, Jihang. 2006. Haebang Jeonhusaui Jaeinshik (Re-realization of hisotry of pre- and post- liberation). 2 vols. 
• Seoul: Chaeksesang. 박지향. 『해방 전후사의 재인식』 서울: 책세상, 2006. 
• Park, Noja. 2001. Dangsindeului Daehanmin-guk [Republic of Korea of your own]. Seoul: Hankyoreh Shinmunsa. Original edition, 박노자. 『당신들의 대한민국』. 서울: 한겨레신문사, 2001. 
• ———. 2005. Wuseung Yeolpaeui Sinhwa [Myth of the survival of the fittest]. Seoul: Hangyoreh Sinmunsa. Original edition, 박노자. 『우승열패의 신화』. 서울: 한겨레 신문사, 2005. 
• Park, You-me. 2000. "Comforting the Nation: 'Comfort Women,' the Politics of Apology and the Workings of Gender." Interventions no. 2 (2):199-211. 
• No Park Yuha
• Perlman, Michael. 1988. Imagined Memory and the Place of Hiroshima. Albany: State University of New York Press. 
• Piketty, Thomas. 2014. Capital in the Twenty-First Century. Translated by Arthur Goldhammer. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Original edition, Thomas Piketty. Le capital an XXI siécle. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 2013. 
• Piper, Nicola, and Anders Uhlin. 2004. Transnational Activism in Asia: Problems of Power and Democracy, Transnationalism. Routledge research in transnationalism ; 13. London & New York: Routledge. 
• Piven, Frances Fox, and Richard A. Cloward. 1977. Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail. 1st ed. New York: Pantheon Books. 
• Polletta, Francesca. 2003. "Legacies and Liabilities of an Insurgent Past: Remembering Martin Luther King Jr. on the House and Senate Floor." In States of Memory: Continuities, Conflicts, and Transformations in National Retrospection, edited by Jeffrey K. Olick, 193-226. Durham and London: Duke University Press. 
• Renan, Ernest. 1996. "What is a Nation?" In Becoming National: A Reader, edited by Geoff Eley and Ronald Grigor Suny, 42-55. New York: Oxford University Press. 
• Ryu, Yongwook. 2007. "The Yasukuni Controversy - Divergent Perspectives from the Japanese Political Elite." Asian Survey no. 47 (5):705-726. 
• Schmid, Andre. 2000. "Decentering the "Middle Kingdom": The Problem of China in Korean Nationalist Thought, 1895-1910." In Nation Work, edited by Timothy Brook and Andre Schmid, 83-107. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. 
• ———. 2003. Korea Between Empires, 1895-1919. New York: Columbia University Press. 
• Sekiguchi, Noriko. 1990. Senso Daughters [Daughters of war] (documentary film). New York: First Run Icarus Films. 
• Senda, Kako. 1973. Jugun Ianfu [Military comfort women]. Tokyo: Futabasha. Original edition, 千田夏光. 『従軍慰安婦』. 東京: 双葉社, 1973. 
• ———. 1974. Jonggun Wianbu: Sorieupneun Yeoyin, Palmaninui Seokbal [Military comfort women: women with no sound, the past of eighty million]. Seoul: Sinhyeonsilsa. Original edition, 센다 카토. 정해수 옮김. 『從軍慰安婦: 소리없는 女人, 八萬人의 昔發』. 서울: 신현실사, 1974. 
• Seo, Jungmin. 2008a. "The Politics of Historiography in China: Contextualizing the Koguryo Controversy." Asian Perspective no. 32 (3):39-58. 
• ———. 2008b. "Politics of Memory in Korea and China: Remembering the Comfort Women and the Nanjing Massacre." New Political Science no. 30 (3):369-392. 
• Seol, Dong-Hoon, and Jungmin Seo. 2014. "Dynamics of Ethnic Nationalism and Hierarchical Nationhood: Korean Nation and Its Otherness since the Late 1980s." Korea Journal no. 54 (2):5-33. 
• Seraphim, Franziska. 2006. War Memory and Social Politics in Japan, 1945-2005. Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press. 
• ———. 2007. "Relocating War Memory at Century's End: Japan's Postwea Responsibility and Global Pubic Culture." In Ruptured Histories: War, Memory, and the Post-Cold War in Asia, edited by Sheila Miyoshi Jager and Rana Mitter, 15-46. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 
• Shin, Gi-Wook. 2006. Ethnic Nationalism in Korea: Genealogy, Politics, and Legacy. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 
• Shin, Gi-Wook, and Michael Robinson. 1999. Colonial Modernity in Korea. Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press. 
• Shin, Hyungki. 2003. Minjok Iyakireul Neomeoseo [Beyond the nationalist story]. Seoul: Sam-in. Original edition, 신형기. 『민족주의 이야기를 넘어서』. 서울: 삼인, 2003. 
• Shin, Jin-Wook. 2007a. "Minjuhwa Ihuui Gongronjanggwa Sahoegaldeung: 1993nyeon-2006nyeon 'Joseonilbo'wa 'Hangyeoresinmun'ui Hedeurain nyuseue daehan Naeyongbunseok [Public sphere and social conflicts after democratization: a quantitative content analysis of headlines news of the Chosun-Ilbo and the Hankyoreh, 1993-2006.]." Han-guk Sahoehak [Korean Sociology] no. 41 (1):57-93. 신진욱. 「민주화 이후의 공론장과 사회갈등: 1993년-2006년 ‘조선일 보’와 ‘한겨레신문’의 헤드라인 뉴스에 대한 내용분석」. 『한국 사회학』 41집, 2007a: 
• 57-93.  
• ———. 2007b. Sahoeundongui Yeondae Hyeongseonggwa Peureiming Gwajeongeseoui Dodeok Gamjeongui Yeokhal: 5.18 Gwangju Hangjaeng Paempeulite Daehan Naeyong Bunseok [Alliance formation in socil movements and the role of moral sentiment in framing process: content analysis on the pamphlets of 5.18 Gwangju Uprsing]. In Sangjingeseo Dongwoneuro: 1980nyeondae Minjuhwa Undongui Munhwajeok Donghwa [From symbol to mobilization: cultural dynamics of democratization movements in the 1980s], edited by Chulhee Chung et. al. Seoul: Ehaksa. Original edition, 신진욱. 「사회운동의 연대 형성과 프레이밍 과정에서의 도 덕 감정의 역할: 5.18 광주항쟁 팸플릿에 대한 내용 분석」. 정철희 외. 『상징에서 동 원으로: 1980년대 민주화운동의 문화적 동학』. 서울: 이학사, 2007. 57-110쪽. 
• ———. 2008. "Bosudanche Ideologiui Gaenyeom Gujo, 2000-2006: Ban-gong, Bosu, Sijang Ideologireul Jungsimeuro [The conceptual structure of ideologies of Korean conservative associations, 2000-2006]." Gyeongjewa Sahoe [Economy and Society] no. 78:163-193. 
• Shirota, Suzuko. 1962. Ai to Niku no Kokuhaku [Confession of love and flesh]. Tokyo: Otosha. Original edition, 城田すず子. 『愛と肉の告白』.東京: 桜桃社, 1962. 
• Shulman, Stephen. 2002. "Challenging the Civic/Ethnic and West/East Dichotomies in the Study of Nationalism." Comparative Politica Studies no. 35 (5):554-585. 
• Shuppansha, Kaiho. 1993. Kimu Hakusun san no shogen: Jugun ianfu mondai o tou [Testimony of Kim Haksun]. Shohan. ed. Osaka: Kaiho Shuppansha. 
• Smith, Anthony D. 1996. "The Origins of Nations." In Becoming National: A Reader, edited by Geoff Eley and Ronald Grigor Suny, 42-55. New York: Oxford University Press. 
• ———. 2008. The Cultural Foundations of Nations: Hierarchy, Covenant and Republic. Malden: Blackwell Pub. 
• ———. 2009. Ethno-symbolism and Nationalism: a Cultural Approach. London & New York: Routledge. ———. 2010. Nationalism: Theory, Ideology, History. Cambridge: Polity. 
• Snow, David A., and Robert D. Benford. 1988. "Ideology, Frame Resonance, and Participant Mobilization." International Social Movement Research no. 1:197-217. 
• ———. 1992. "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest." In Frontiers in Social Movement Theory, edited by Aldon D. Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller, 133-155. New Haven: Yale University Press. 
• Snow, David A., Jr. E. Burke Rochford, Steven K. Worden, and Robert D. Benford. 1986. "Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation." American Sociological Review no. 51:464-481. 
• Snow, David A., Jr. Loiuis A. Zurcher, and Sheldon Ekland-Olson. 1980. "Social Networks and Social Movements: A Microstructural Approach to Differential Recruitment." American Sociological Review no. 45:787-801. 
• Soh, C. Sarah. 2008. The Comfort Women: Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan. 
• Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 
• Soh, Chunghee Sarah. 1996. "Korean 'Comfort Women': Movement for Redress." Asian Survey no. 36:1227-40. 
• ———. 1998. "The Problem of "Comfort Women": The Intersections of Gender, Sexuality, Class, Ethnicity, and the State." In Cross-Cultural Communication East and West in the 90's, edited by Bates L. Hoffer and John H. Koo, 83-87. San Antonio: Institute for Cross-Cultural Research. 
• ———. 2003. "Politics of the Victims/Victor Complex: Interpreting South Korea's National Furor over Japanese History Textbooks." American Asian Review no. 11 (4):145-78. 
• ———. 2007. "The Korean "Comfort Women" Tragedy as Structural Violence." In Rethinking Historical Injustice and Reconciliation in Northeast Asia: the Korean Experience, edited by Gi-Wook Shin, Soon-Won Park and Daqing Yang, 17-35. London & New York: Routledge. 
• Suny, Ronald Grigor. 2001. "Constructing Primordialism: Old Histories for New Nations." Journal of Modern History no. 73:862-96. 
• Takasaki, Ryuji. 1993. "Jinchu nisshi" ni kakareta ianjo to dokugasu (Comfort Women station and poison gas written in the "Journal of War"), Kyokasho ni kakarenakatta senso. Tokyo: Nashinokisha. Original 
• edition, 高崎隆治. 「陣中日誌」に書かれた慰安所と毒ガス. 東京: 梨の木舍, 1993. 
• Takekawa, Shunichi. 2007. "Forging Nationalism from Pacifism and Internationalism: A Study of Asahi and Yomiuri's New Year's Day Editorials, 1953-2005." Social Science Japan Journal no. 10 
• (1):59-80. 
• Tarrow, Sidney G. 1998. Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics. 2nd ed, Cambridge studies in comparative politics. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press. 
• Taylor, Verta, and Nancy E. Whittier. 1992. "Collective Identity in Social Movement Communities: 
• Lesbian Feminist Mobilization." In Frontiers in Social Movement Theory, edited by Aldon D. 
• Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller, 104-129. New Haven: Yale University Press. 
• Tomiyama, Taeko, and Hidane Kobo. 1988. A Memory of the Sea (Slide video). Tokyo: Hidane Kobo,. 
• slide. 
• Tu, Wei-ming. 1996. Confucian Traditions in East Asian Modernity: Moral Education and Economic Culture in Japan and the Four Mini-dragons. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 
• Ueno, Chizuko. 1999. Naesyeoneoliseumgwa Jendeo [Nationalism and gender]. Seoul: Parkjongcheol 
• Publishers. Original edition, 上野千鶴子. 『ナショナリズムとジェンダー』. 東京: 青土
• 社, 1998. 
• ———. 2004. Nationalism and Gender. Translated by Beverley Anne Yamamoto, Japanese society series. Melbourne: Trans Pacific. 
• Vallone, Robert P., Lee Ross, and Mark R. Lepper. 1985. "The Hostile Media Phenomenon: Biased Perception and Perceptions of Media Bias in Coverage of the Beirut Massacre." Attitudes and Social Cognition no. 49 (3):577-585. 
• Walder, Andrew G. 2009. "Political Sociology and Social Movement." Annual Review of Sociology no. 
• 35:393-412. 
• Wells, Kenneth. 1990. New God, New Nation: Protestants and Self-Reconstruction Nationalism in Korea, 1896-1937. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. 
• Wells, Kenneth M. 1995. South Korea's Minjung Movement: The Culture and Politics of Dissidence. 
• Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. 
• Winichakul, Thongchai. 1997. Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-Body of a Nation. Honolulu: 
• University of Hawaii. 
• Wolfsfeld, Gadi. 1997. Media and Political Conflict: News from the Middle East. Cambridg & New York: 
• Cambridge University Press. 
• Yack, Bernard. 1999. "The Myth of Civic Nation." In Theorizing Nationalism, edited by Ronald Beiner, 103-118. Albany: State University of New York Press. 
• Yamada, Meiko. 1992. Senryogun ianfu : kokusaku baishun no onnatachi no higeki [Comfort women for occupied army: tragedy of prostitutes from public policy]. Tokyo: Kojinsha. Original edition, 山田盟子. 『占
• 領軍慰安婦 : 国策売春の女たちの悲劇』. 光人社, 1992. 
• Yamatani, Tetsuo. 1979. Okinawa no Harumoni [A grandmother in Okinawa] (documentary film). 
• Yang, Daqing. 1999. "Convergence or Divergence?: Recent Historical Writings on the Rape of Nanjing." The American Historical Review no. 104 (3):842-865. 
• Yang, Hyunah. 1998. "Re-membering the Korean Military Comfort Women: Nationalism, Sexuality, and Silencing." In Dangerous Women: Gender & Korean Nationalism, edited by Elain H. Kim and Chungmoo Choi, 123-39. New York: Routledge. 
• Yim, Jong-guk. 1981. Jeongsindae Silrok [True Records of Jeongsindae]. Seoul: Ilwol Seogak. Original 
• edition, 임종국. 『정신대 실록』. 서울: 일월서각. 1981. 
• Yoneyama, Lisa. 1999. Hiroshima Traces: Time, Spaces, and the Dialectics of Memory, Twentieth-century Japan. 
• Berkeley & London: University of California Press. 
• Yoon, Mee-Hayng. 2010. 20 Nyeonganui Suyoil [Wednesday for 20 years]. Seoul: Imprint Woongjin Junior. 
• Original edition, 윤미향. 『20년간의 수요일』. 서울: 웅진미디어, 2010. 
• ———. 2011. "20Nyeonganui Suyoil - Ilbon-gun'wiwanbu' Munje Haegyeoleul Wihan Saengjonjadeulgwa Yeoseongdeului Yeondae [20 years of Wednesday: survivors and women's coallition for resolving Japanese military 'comfort women' issue." Hangukyeoseongsinhak [Korean Women's Theology]. 윤미향. 「20년의 수요일 – 일본군 ‘위안부’문
• 제 해결을 위한 생존자들과 여성들의 연대」. 『한국여성신학』. 2011.  
• Yoshida, Seiji. 1977. Chosenjin Ianfu to Nihonjin [Korean comfort women and the Japanese]. Tokyo: 
• Shinjinbutuoraisha. Original edition, 吉田清治.『朝鮮人慰安婦と日本人 : 元下関労報動員部長の手記』. 東京: 新人物往来社, 1977. 
• ———. 1983. Watashi no Senso Hanzai [My war crimes]. Tokyo: Sanichi Shobo. Original edition, 吉田
• 清治. 『私の戦争犯罪 : 朝鮮人強制連行』. 東京: 三一書房, 1983. 
• ———. 1989. Naneun Joseon Sarameul Ireoke Jabagatda: Naui Jeonjaeng Beomjoe Gobaek [This is how I took people from Joseon: my confession of war crimes]. Vol. Cheonggye Yeon-guso: Seoul. Original 
• edition, 요시다 세이지. 현대사연구실 옮김. 『나는 조선 사람을 이렇게 잡아갔다: 나 의 전쟁범죄 고백』. 서울: 청계연구소, 1989. 
• Yoshimi, Yoshiaki. 1992. Jugun ianfu shiryoshu [Collected materials on military comfort women]. Tokyo: 
• Otsuki Shoten. Original edition, 吉見義明. 『従軍慰安婦資料集』. 大月書店. 1992. 
• Yun, Jeongmo. 1982. Emi Ireumeun Josenppiyeotda: Barambyeokui Ddaldeul  [Mother's Name was Josenppi: Daughters of Windwall]. Seoul: Inmundang. Original edition, 윤정모. 『에미 이름은 조센삐
• 였다: 바람벽의 딸들』. 서울: 인문당, 1982. 
•  
•  
•