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217조 원 적자, 한전이 주주들에게 돈 나눠줄 땐가:
슬로우레터 3월3일.
[슬로우레터] 자칭 보수는 34%가 “찍을 사람 없다”… 20대 남성 이재명 지지율 13%, 보수 진영 후보는 다 합쳐 24%.
탄핵 반대 집회 15만 명.
- 조선일보가 인용한 경찰 비공식 추산이다. 찬성 집회는 3만 명이 몰렸다.
- 중앙일보는 숫자가 다르다. 탄핵 반대 집회 12만 명, 찬성 집회는 2만 명이다.
- 중앙일보는 “광장 정치에서 진보 진영에 늘 밀렸던 여권은 한껏 고무된 표정이면서도 중도층 여론과 점점 더 멀어지고 있다는 우려 또한 적지 않다”고 평가했다.
- 조선일보는 광장에 의미 부여를 하고 중앙일보는 광장에 갇힐 걸 우려한다. 접근이 다르다.
- 서천호(국민의힘 의원)가 “모두 때려 부숴야 한다”고 말한 것도 논란이 됐다. 세계일보는 사설에서 “아무리 탄핵에 반대하더라도 대한민국 국격을 추락시킨 12·3 비상계엄 사태부터 먼저 사과해야 하는 것 아니냐”고 지적했다.
둘로 쪼개진 것 맞나.
조선일보는 사설에서 “둘로 쪼개진 3.1절”이라고 평가했다.
- “이런 극단적인 분열상이 계속된다면 헌재에서 어떤 결정이 나도 불복하는 최악의 시태가 될 수 있다”고 지적했지만 사실 앞장서서 분열을 부추기는 게 조선일보다.
- 중요한 건 광장의 숫자가 아니라 옳고 그름을 명확히 하는 것이다. 갈등의 본질을 보지 않고 갈등의 구도를 강조하는 언론 보도가 여론을 두 쪽으로 가른다.
쫓겨난 젤렌스키.
- 도널드 트럼프(미국 대통령)가 볼로디미르 젤렌스키(우크라이나 대통령)를 백악관에 불러서 호통을 쳤다. JD 밴스(미국 부통령)가 “무례하다”고 비난했고 젤렌스키가 회의장을 박차고 나갔다(트럼프가 문을 열어줬다).
- (자세한 분석은 3월2일 슬로우리포트 “약소국 대통령이 트럼프에게 납작 엎드리지 않을 때 감수해야 하는 것” 참조.)
- 중앙일보는 “미국 우선주의 기조 아래 동맹보다 거래적 접근을 선호하는 트럼프가 북한에 직접 관여할 경우 한미 동맹의 가치가 뒷전으로 밀리고 한국 패싱이 없으리란 보장이 없다”고 전망했다.
- 한겨레는 “우리 역시 대비를 서둘러야 한다”면서 “우리 안보 문제를 우리가 주도해야, 국익을 지켜야 하는 결정적인 순간에 당당히 No를 외칠 수 있다”고 지적했다.
- 동아일보는 “미국과 한배를 타야만 하는 국가의 운명과, 세계 평화와 인류 공영이라는 오랜 안보 가치 가운데 어느 쪽도 저버릴 수 없었을 것”이라면서 “한국이 미래에 마주할 수많은 가치 충돌을 예고하는 장면이기도 했다”고 평가했다.
쟁점과 현안.
중도도 이재명으로 결집하는데 20대는 관망.
- 이재명 지지율이 꾸준히 오르고 있다. 2월 마지막주 기준 35%, 다른 후보들은 김문수(고용노동부 장관)가 10%를 찍었을 뿐 모두 10% 넘는 후보가 없다. 한국갤럽 여론조사 결과다.
- 여권 후보자를 다 합쳐도 24%밖에 안 된다. 지지후보를 결정하지 않았거나 답을 하지 않은 비율이 41%나 된다.
 
- 2월 통합 통계를 보면 이재명은 40대와 50대에서 과반에 육박하는 지지율을 확보하고 있다. 다만 20대 이하에서는 19%, 30대에서는 29%에 그쳤다.
- 스스로를 보수로 분류한 응답자의 34%가 “찍을 사람이 없다”고 답변한 것도 눈길을 끈다. 진보 성향 응답자는 이 비율이 21%였다. 여전히 보수 과다 표집 논란도 있다. 2월 넷째주 조사에서도 보수와 진보가 각각 34%와 26%였다.

‘명’ 엎치고 ‘한’ 덮쳤다.
- 명태균 게이트와 한동훈 등판에 홍준표(대구시장)와 오세훈(서울시장)의 지지율이 지지부진한 걸 두고 하는 말이다.
- 두 사람은 각각 한국갤럽 기준으로 4%와 3%의 지지율을 보이고 있다. 1%포인트씩 줄어들었다.
- 명태균 의혹이 정리되지 않은 상태에서는 지지율이 반등하기 어렵다는 관측이 지배적이다. 그렇다고 한동훈으로 결집하는 분위기도 아니다. 한동훈도 여전히 4% 수준이다.
‘배드캅’ 박찬대와 ‘굿캅’ 이재명.
- 나쁜 경찰과 착한 경찰의 역할 분담을 하고 있다는 관측이 나온다.
- 박찬대(민주당 원내대표)는 여야정 국정협의회를 박차고 나왔다. 최상목(대통령 권한대행)이 마은혁(헌법재판소 재판관) 임명을 미루고 있는 데 대한 항의 차원이다. 중앙일보는 이재명과 교감이 있었을 거라고 본다.
- 내란 특검법도 협상을 거부하다가 3자 특검을 수용했는데 역시 이재명에게 좋은 경찰 역할을 맡긴 거라는 관측이 있었다. 민주당의 한 중진 의원은 “이런 모습이 중도층에게 끝까지 불안감을 준다”고 지적했다.
더 깊게 읽기.
“김영선 사무실은 명태균 공화국이었다.”
- 김영선(전 국민의힘 의원) 보좌관이 검찰 조사에서 한 말이다.
- 사실상 모든 것을 명태균이 결정했다고 한다. 보좌관 인사도 명태균이 했고 지역 사무소 직원들도 명태균의 지시를 받았다.
- 보좌관들 앞에서 김영선에게 욕설을 하고 소리를 지른 적도 있었다고 한다.
가계대출 2월에 5조 원 늘었다.
- 4년 만의 최대 폭이다. 2월은 원래 비수기다.
- 잠삼대청(잠실동과 삼성동, 대치동, 청담동) 지역의 부동산 가격이 급등 조짐을 보이고 있다.
- 1월 서울 아파트 평균 가격이 13억8289만 원까지 치솟았다.
- 3단계 DSR(스트레스 총부채 원리금 상환 비율)가 시행되는 7월까지 집값이 요동칠 거라는 전망이 나온다.

검은 금요일의 폭락.
- 미국에서 엔비디아 등 기술주가 급락하면서 한국도 공포 매도가 쏟아졌다. 코스피 지수는 3.4% 폭락했다.
- 내수는 얼어붙었고 수출도 흔들리고 있다. 반도체 수출이 16개월 만에 마이너스로 돌아선 것도 우려를 더한다.
- 추가 경정예산이 시급하다는 지적이 많은데 국정협의회는 무산됐다.
다르게 읽기.
공허한 임기 단축론.
- 조선일보가 1면 사이드 기사로 “차기 대통령은 3년만”이란 제안을 내놨다. 여야 양쪽에서 개헌론이 나온다고 했지만 어차피 대선 전 개헌은 현실적으로 불가능하다.
- 오세훈(서울시장)과 유승민(전 새누리당 의원) 등이 임기 단축론을 제안하고 있지만 아직까지는 당선권 밖 후보들이다. 개헌이 핵심 선거 공약이 될 리도 없고 정작 유력 후보인 이재명(민주당 대표)은 “개헌을 안 할 수는 없다”며 대선 이후에나 이야기하자는 입장이다.
- 제왕적 대통령제가 문제라는 지적도 많지만 4년 중임제가 아니라서 윤석열이 내란을 일으킨 게 아니다.
- 조선일보의 개헌론은 두 가지 의도로 해석할 수 있다.
- 첫째, 이재명이 당선될 거라면 이왕이면 짧게 가자는 의도일 수도 있고,
- 둘째, 개헌론 외에 보수 의제가 없기 때문일 수도 있다. 민주 Vs. 반민주의 구도를 개헌 Vs. 반개헌의 구도로 만들고 싶겠지만 잘될까.
가뜩이나 부족한 전문의, 수도권으로 몰렸다.
- 의대 증원 논란 1년, 지역 의료와 필수 의료가 가장 먼저 무너지고 있다.
- 2023년 4분기와 2024년 4분기를 비교해 보니, 경기도는 전문의가 14% 늘었는데 충남과 전남은 50%와 11% 줄었다.
- 전공의들이 병원을 떠나고 그 빈자리를 그나마 남아있던 지역의 전공의들이 올라와 채웠다.
- 올해 배출된 전문의는 지난해 19% 수준에 그쳤다.
- 이윤주(경향신문 정책사회부장)는 “마지막 기회라는 생각으로 머리를 맞대야 한다”고 조언했다. “회북 불가능한 충격으로 남아서는 안 된다”는 이야기다.
한전이 지금 배당할 땐가.
- 1374억 원을 주주들에게 배당한다. 정부 지분이 51%라 배당금 절반이 국고로 들어가지만 애초에 빚부터 갚는 게 우선이라는 지적이 나온다.
- 한국전력공사 부채는 지난해 말 기준으로 217조 원이다. 이자 비용으로만 연간 3조 원을 낸다.
- 지난해 산업용 전기요금을 올린 덕분에 3년 만에 흑자 전환해 8조 원의 영업이익을 냈다.
- 윤석열 정부 들어 늘어난 세수 결손을 메우는 효과는 있겠지만 어차피 새발의 피다. 2년 동안 세수 결손이 87조 원이 넘는다.
- 손양훈(인천대 교수)은 “부채가 자기자본의 5배가 넘는 한전은 빚부터 갚아야 한다”고 경고했다.
- 박종배(건국대 교수)는 “연간 7조~8조 원의 송배전망 투자 등 할 일이 산더미 같은데 여전히 재무 상황이 심각하다”면서 “배당은 근시안적 결정”이라고 지적했다.
 
숙박앱 때문에 모텔 접습니다.
- “매출의 5분의 1을 가져가는 게 말이 됩니까.” 월 매출 5000만 원의 모텔 주인이 한 말이다.
- 이 모텔은 야놀자와 여기어때에 내는 광고비가 각각 384만 원과 242만 원. 여기에 매출의 10% 수수료까지 더하면 1126만 원이 빠져 나간다.
클릭 한 번에 600원, 배달앱의 저주.
- 중앙일보가 만난 한 족발집 사장은 한때 배달앱 광고비를 매출액 대비 30%까지 썼다. 월 광고비 한도 300만 원은 금세 빠져나가는데 언젠가부터 매출이 꺾였다. 클릭만 하고 주문이 없어도 광고비는 나간다.
- 중앙일보는 “플랫폼이 설계한 광고비 출혈 경쟁은 오징어 게임과 같다”고 평가했다. 상단에 노출되는 광고가 2~3개로 줄면서 경쟁은 더 치열해졌다. 자영업자에게 소외는 곧 죽음이고 광고는 선택이 아니라 필수다.
- ‘무료 배달’이라는 표현을 쓰지 말자는 제안도 나왔다. 결국 자영업자가 그 부담을 떠안게 된다는 사실을 은폐하기 때문이다.

다이소 3000원 비타민 왜 안 되나.
- 약국과 비교하면 10분의 1 가격이지만 물론 성분은 차이가 있다. 대웅제약과 일양약품 등에서 납품을 받기로 했는데 대한약사회의 압박에 일양약품이 판매 중단을 선언했다.
- 약사들은 마치 약국이 폭리를 취하고 있는 것처럼 오해를 불러일으켰다고 반발한다.
- 건강기능식품 시장은 지난해 6조 원 규모다. 인터넷 판매가 70%고 약국 판매는 4% 수준이다. 어차피 약국에서 비타민을 사는 사람은 많지 않다는 이야기다.
- 조선일보는 “다이소 건기식 사태가 건기식 시장을 가로막는 요인이 될 수 있다”고 지적했다. CJ올리브영이 화장품 시장을 키운 것처럼 생태계를 키워야 한다는 이야기다.
소득 1분위, 100원 벌어 50원 먹는데 쓴다.
- 소득 하위 20%의 식비 부담이 크게 늘었다. (주류를 제외한 식료품 구입비와 식사비를 더한 금액이다.)
- 1분위 가구의 식비 지출이 2019년 1분기 30만 원에서 지난해 4분기 47만 원으로 늘었다. 5분위 가구는 103만 원에서 133만 원으로 늘었다. 1분위는 55%가 늘고 5분위는 29%가 늘었다.
- 처분 가능 소득 대비 식비는 1분위가 45%, 5분위는 15%다. 처분 가능 소득은 세금과 사회보험료 등을 제외하고 실제로 사용할 수 있는 소득을 말한다.
해법과 대안.
‘따옴표 저널리즘’ 비난 피하려면.
- 두 가지 기술적 보완이 가능하다.
- 첫째, 그냥 받아쓰기만 하지 말고 확인되지 않은 주장이라고 알려주면 된다. 트럼프가 지난 대선 때 “스프링필드의 아이티 이민자들이 개와 고양이를 잡아먹는다”고 주장하자 방송을 중계한 NBC는 곧바로 “근거 없는 주장”이라고 지적했다.
- 둘째, 맥락을 설명해 주면 된다. 윤석열이 “의원이 아니라 요원이라고 했다”고 하면 “그 시점에 국회 안에 투입된 요원은 없었다”거나 “의원을 끌어내라는 말로 이해했다는 복수의 진술이 있었다”고 의미 부여를 해주는 방식이다.
- 박성호(방송기자연합회 회장)는 “입장이 무엇인가 묻는 데 그치지 말고 그렇게 말하는 근거를 갖고 있느냐고 한 번 더 질문을 하는 습관이 중요하다”고 강조했다.
- 박성호는 MBC 보도국장 시절, “오늘 윤석열 대통령은”이라는 주어를 빼고 리포트를 써보라고 주문했다. 윤석열이 주어로 등장하는 빈도가 낮은 기사가 더 이해가 잘 된다는 반응이 많았다.
중국인 건강보험에 대한 오해.
- 2023년 기준으로 외국인 건강보험 가입자는 146만 명, 7400억 원 흑자였다.
- 중국인 가입자만 놓고 보면 68만 명으로 절반 정도를 차지한다. 그동안 중국인 가입자가 주요 적자 요인이었던 건 사실이다. 중국에서 가족들을 데리고 와 피부양자로 등록한 뒤 의료 쇼핑을 하는 경우가 많았기 때문이다.
- 중국인만 놓고 보면 2017년 1108억 원 적자에서 계속 줄어 2023년에는 27억 원 적자에 그쳤다. 통계가 잘못 공표돼 1200억 원 가까이 적자가 부풀려진 걸 최근 바로잡았다. 중국인 무임승차가 없었던 건 아니지만 알려진 것보다 크지 않고 그나마 자격 요건 강화 이후 크게 줄었다는 게 팩트다.
- 외국인 지역 가입자가 늘면서 적자가 크게 줄었다. 2019년부터 한국에 6개월 이상 거주한 외국인은 직장 가입자나 피부양자가 아니면 지역 가입자로 분류하고 있다. 지난해 4월부터는 피부양자도 한국 거주 기간이 6개월 이상 지나야 자격이 된다.
벚꽃 피는 순서대로 병원이 망할 수도.
- 빅 5 병원의 수술 건수가 의정 갈등 이전의 74%까지 회복했다는 보건복지부의 설명이 있었지만 착시 현상일 수 있다. 11개 국립대 병원의 적자가 5663억 원에 이른다.
- 2023년 말 4080명이던 인턴+레지던트가 지난해 말 1200명으로 줄었다. 대부분 일반의로 취업해 버티고 있는 상황이다. 이들 가운데 상당수는 필수의료를 포기할 가능성이 크다.
- 최현철(중앙일보 사회부국장)은 “의대 정원을 늘리기에 앞서 상급 종합병원의 전공의 의존도를 낮추고 필수의료 수가 인상이 선행됐어야 했다”고 지적했다. “시간을 끌어봐야 개선되지 않고 더 나빠질 뿐이다. 패배 선언만 미룬 채 그저 버티는 동안 파국이 다가오고 있다.”
오늘의 TMI.
2036년 전북 올림픽?
- 잼버리의 악몽이 떠오르지만 일단 한국 후보지로 선정됐다. 61표 가운데 49표를 받았다. 서울은 11표에 그쳤다.
- 김관영(전북도지사)은 “지역 도시들의 연대를 통해 지역 소멸 위기를 극복하고 화합을 이루겠다는 정신이 대의원들의 마음을 움직였다”고 평가했다.
내일 대체거래소 출범, 12시간 거래 가능.
- 한국거래소 독점이 70년 만에 깨졌다.
- 오전 8시부터 8시50분까지 프리마켓, 오후 3시30분부터 오후 8시까지 애프터 마켓이 열린다. 메인 마켓과 사이에 10분의 텀을 뒀다.
- 일단 10개 종목으로 시작해서 종목 수를 800개까지 늘려간다.
박사 10명 가운데 3명은 백수.
- 2014년 통계 조사 이래 가장 높은 비율이다.
- 지난해 박사 학위를 딴 1만442명 가운데 재직 중이거나 취업이 확정된 비율이 70.4%였다.
- 남녀 각각 6288명과 4154명인데 무직자 비율이 27.4%와 33.1%로 여성의 취업률이 더 낮았다.
밑줄 쳐 가면서 읽은 칼럼.
부정선거 음모론에 보수 궤멸할 수도.
- “왜 국가가 의심할 자유를 억압하나.” 한 원로 교수가 했다는 말이다.
- 정용관(동아일보 논설실장)은 “부정선거 음모론은 팩트체크의 문제가 아니라 믿음의 문제가 돼 버렸다”면서 “부정선거론은 대통령 개인의 위기 모면을 위한 전략의 일환일지는 모르지만 보수 비극의 씨앗이 될 공산이 크다”고 경고했다.
- “선관위도 부정선거 가능성은 없다고 소극적, 방어적 대응만 할 게 아니라 몇 번이고 “모든 걸 검증해 달라”고 자청할 일이다. ‘부정선거 도그마’는 보수뿐 아니라 우리 민주주의 자체에 치명적 독이다. 야당도 부정선거를 둘러싼 보수의 내홍을 즐기기만 할 때가 아니다.”
팩트체크로 음모론을 잡을 수 없는 이유.
- 허위 사실이 진실보다 소셜 미디어에서 공유될 확률이 70% 더 높다. 진실이 1500명에게 도달되는 데 걸리는 시간은 거짓보다 6배 더 오래 걸린다. 사이언스에 실린 MIT 연구 결과다.
- 강형철(숙명여대 교수)은 “공영방송이 잘돼 있는 나라일수록 사회적 신뢰가 높고 음모론이 자리 잡기 힘들다”고 지적했다. 중심을 잡는 언론이 있어야 한다.
- 분석적 사고 능력과 사회적 신뢰가 근본적인 해법이라는 이야기다.
피드백.
- 지난 목요일 슬로우레터에서 전통주에 대한 설명이 정확하지 않아 바로잡습니다.
- ‘백세주’나 ‘화요’, ‘장수 생막걸리’ 등은 전통주가 아니라 지원 대상이 아닙니다. 녹색 통 ‘장수 생막걸리’는 수입 쌀을 쓰고 흰색 통 ‘장수 생막걸리’는 국산 쌀을 쓰지만 둘 다 전통주는 아닙니다. 그래서 국산 쌀을 쓰더라도 특별히 혜택은 없습니다. 업계에서는 ‘전통주 등’에도 가공용 정부미를 우선 배정해 달라고 요청하고 있습니다. 재고 소진도 하고 국산 쌀 소비를 늘리는 일석이조가 될 수 있겠죠.




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SLOWNEWS.KR
217조 원 적자, 한전이 주주들에게 돈 나눠줄 땐가: 슬로우레터 3월3일. - 슬로우뉴스.
https://slownews.kr/130086
가계부채
위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.
가계부채(家計負債, 영어: household debt)는 벌어오는 것보다 쓰는 것이 많아 자력으로 해결하기 어려울 때 제삼자에게 신용이나 가지고 있는 부동산을 담보로 약정서를 작성하고 필요한 만큼의 현금을 빌려다 쓰는 빚을 말한다. 통계청(2010)의 가계금융조사에 따르면 부채에는 담보대출, 신용대출을 포함한 ‘금융부채’와 ‘임대보증금’이 포함된다.
현황[편집]
2014년 9월 기준 한국은행의 국민계정과 가계신용 통계를 기준으로 가계부채 총액은 1,050조원 가량이고, 8월 말 대비 0.6% 증가한 수치다. 2012년 기준 국민개인가처분소득은 707조원으로 4.1% 늘어나는 데 그쳤다. 개인가처분소득 대비 가계부채 비율은 2011년 134.3%에서 지난해엔 135.6%로 더 높아졌다. 이는 한국은행이 2003년 관련 통계를 작성한 이래 최고치이다. 이 수치는 2004년도에 하락했다가 2005년 108.6로 치솟은 뒤 8년째 사상 최고치를 경신하고 있다. 소득보다 빚이 늘어나는 속도가 더 빨라 가계부채 구조가 해마다 악화하고 있는 것이다.
김중수 한국은행 총재는 “가계부채 증가 속도가 소득보다 빠른데다 질적 측면에서도 악화하고 있다. 빚 총량 뿐 아니라 취약한 가계부채 구조를 개선하려는 노력을 지속해야 한다”고 말했다. 김 총재는 국회 업무보고에서도 “가계부채 문제가 한계상황에 와 있다”며 경고한 바 있다.[1]
2020년에 들어서면서, 한국 경제는 3대 부채가 급속히 증가하였다. 국가부채는 758조, 기업부채는 1,954조, 가계부채는 1,827조로 증가하였다.[2]
특징[편집]
첫째 2005년 이후 2010년까지 5년 동안 통계를 보면 가계부채가 소득보다 더 빠른 속도로 늘어났다. 가계대출과 판매신용을 포함하는 가계신용은 연평균 9.3%씩 증가했고 5년 동안 늘어난 가계신용이 303조원으로 기간 중 증가율이 55.8%에 달했다. 반면 소득의 대표적인 지표인 명목 국내총생산(GDP)은 같은 기간 연평균 6.3% 증가했고 5년 동안 늘어난 명목 GDP도 307조6000억 원으로 기간 중 증가율이 35.6%에 불과했다 더욱이 통계청이 작성하는 가계소득(전국 2인 이상 가구)의 경우 5년 동안 연평균 증가율이 4.6%로 더 낮은 것으로 나온다. 이 통계를 기준으로 할 경우 우리 국민들이 소득증가율보다 2배나 높은 증가율로 돈을 빌려다 썼다는 계산이 나온다
둘째 이렇게 늘어나고 있는 가계부채 중 비(非)은행권으로부터의 대출비중이 갈수록 높아지고 있다는 점이다.
셋째 가계부채 중 변동금리로 빌린 비중이 90%에 달하고 있을 뿐 아니라 일시상환 대출비중도 40%를 넘고 있다
넷째 여러 금융회사로부터 중복해서 돈을 빌려 쓰고 있는 이른바 다중(多重)채무자가 적게는 100만 명에서 많게는 400만 명에 달하고 있다
다섯째 빚을 갚기 위해 가지고 있는 부동산 등 자산을 팔고 싶어도 마음대로 안되는 계층이 갈수록 늘어나고 있다는 점이다 [3]
한국의 가계부채 문제가 차기 박근혜 정부에 최대 걸림돌이 될 수 있다고 블룸버그 통신이 21일 보도했다. [4]
같이 보기[편집]대한민국의 부채
국가 부채
공공기관 부채
각주[편집]
↑ 연 가처분소득 1000만원인데 빚이 1356만원 가계부채 비율 역대 최고 한겨레, 2013.04.24
↑ “국가·기업·가계부채 '4,539조'…빚 굴레에 짓눌린 대한민국”. 2020년 7월 8일. 2021년 4월 7일에 확인함.
↑ 약한 곳 무너지면 걷잡을 수 없다월간조선, 2012년 2월호
↑ 韓 가계부채 문제, 새 정부에 걸림돌-블룸버그머니투데이, 2013.02.21
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Household debt
4 languages
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (December 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Household debt is the combined debt of all people in a household, including consumer debt and mortgage loans. A significant rise in the level of this debt coincides historically with many severe economic crises and was a cause of the U.S. and subsequent European economic crises of 2007–2012. Several economists have argued that lowering this debt is essential to economic recovery in the U.S. and selected Eurozone countries.[1][2][3]
Overview[edit]
Household debt can be defined in several ways, based on what types of debt are included. Common debt types include home mortgages, home equity loans, auto loans, student loans, and credit cards. Household debt can also be measured across an economy, to measure how indebted households are relative to various measures of income (e.g., pre-tax and disposable income) or relative to the size of the economy (GDP).
The burden of debt can also be measured in terms of the amount of interest it generates relative to the income of the borrower. For example, the U.S. Federal Reserve measures the "household debt service ratio" (DSR), an estimate of the ratio of debt payments to disposable personal income. Debt payments consist of the estimated required payments on outstanding mortgage and consumer debt. The Fed also measures the "financial obligations ratio" (FOR), which adds automobile lease payments, rental payments on tenant-occupied property, homeowners' insurance, and property tax payments to the debt service ratio. Homeowner and renter FORs are calculated by applying homeowner and renter shares of payments and income derived from the Survey of Consumer Finances and Current Population Survey to the numerator and denominator of the FOR. The homeowner mortgage FOR includes payments on mortgage debt, homeowners' insurance, and property taxes, while the homeowner consumer FOR includes payments on consumer debt and automobile leases.[4]
Historical perspective[edit]
In the 20th century, spending on consumer durables rose significantly. Household debt rose as living standards rose, and consumers demanded an array of durable goods. These included major durables like high-end electronics, vehicles, and appliances, that were purchased with credit. Easy credit encouraged a shift from saving to spending. This trend has continued into the 2020s where swiping a credit card has become a standard in day-to-day life
Households in developed countries significantly increased their household debt relative to their disposable income and GDP from 1980 to 2007 — one of the many factors behind the U.S. and European crises of 2007–2012. Research indicates that U.S. household debt increased from 43% to 62% of GDP from 1982 to 2000.[5] Looking at the early years of the 21st century, many industrialized countries, with a notable exception of Germany, experienced a major spike of household debt versus GDP around 2007–8, with the United States leading up to 2007; by 2017, the American ratio was second only to that of the United Kingdom.[6]
U.S. households made significant progress in deleveraging (reducing debt) post-crisis, much of it due to foreclosures and financial institution debt write-downs. By some measures, consumers began to add certain types of debt again in 2012, a sign that the economy may be improving as this borrowing supports consumption.[7] However according to a business insider report [8] Where the average American is almost 105,000 dollars in debt and in total Americans have towered over 17.6 trillion dollars of debt which is over double what the U.S government spent in 2022.
Global economic impact[edit]
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported in April 2012:
"Household debt soared in the years leading up to the Great Recession. In advanced economies, during the five years preceding 2007, the ratio of household debt to income rose by an average of 39 percentage points, to 138 percent. In Denmark, Iceland, Ireland, the Netherlands, and Norway, debt peaked at more than 200 percent of household income. A surge in household debt to historic highs also occurred in emerging economies such as Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, and Lithuania. This occurred largely because the central banks implemented a prolonged period of artificially low policy interest rates, temporarily increasing the amount of debt that could be serviced with a given income. The leveraging up fueled a consumption boom that, ironically, boosted GDP in the countries in question, but represented not a sustainable 'boost to aggregate demand' but instead a mere pulling forward of consumption, as people took on new 30-40 year debt to pay for current year expenditures.
The predictable fallout of this policy is the slow growth that these countries are experiencing today. At the time, the concurrent boom in both house prices and the stock market - as the prices of financed and financial assets were bid up by virtue of the same low rates - meant that household debt relative to assets held broadly stable, which masked households' growing exposure to the eventual sharp fall in asset prices. House prices in particular were vulnerable to sharp movements in policy rates in countries in which most mortgages are adjustable-rate, as 30-40 year loans are highly rate sensitive, house purchases are financed at 80-95% of the price, and only 4-5% of homes change owners in a year.
Despite this low volume, the appraisal rules in most countries limit the number of times that a sale can serve as a comp only in terms of time (12 months), not the number of times that a given sale can be used as a comp - because of this, a "cash out refi boom" followed the low-rate-driven-price-increase - this was the primary vehicle through which developed countries' households leveraged up. On the supply side, home builders are also financed at short rates (in the US, Prime). Their cost of capital was effectively cut in half by virtue of the central bank rate cuts, enabling them to overbuild in response to the rise in prices - with all the new supply making the eventual price collapse worse than it would otherwise have been.
In short, the entire episode was straight out of Ludwig von Mises' 'Human Action', Chapter 20, with the new twist that most of the debt was incurred on the consumer side. When rising consumer prices forced the central banks to allow policy rates to rise back up toward market rates, the wind propping up house prices was taken away. House prices immediately declined, ushering in the global financial crisis. Many households, who had reduced their savings out of a belief in the "wealth effect," saw their wealth shrink relative to their debt, and, with less income and more unemployment, especially in the previously booming real estate sector, found it harder to meet mortgage payments. "Strategic defaults" became common, as homeowners with significant negative equity simply abandoned the home and the debt.
By the end of 2011, real house prices had fallen from their peak by about 41% in Ireland, 29% in Iceland, 23% in Spain and the United States, and 21% in Denmark. Household defaults, underwater mortgages (where the loan balance exceeds the house value), foreclosures, and fire sales became endemic to a number of economies. Household deleveraging by paying off debts or defaulting on them has begun in some countries. It has been most pronounced in the United States, where about two-thirds of the debt reduction reflects defaults.
Of note, Germany, in which almost all mortgages carry 10 year pricing, and in which the 10 year interest rate did not decline during the 2000s, no housing bubble occurred at all. Also, in Canada, in which most mortgages are ARMs but 3-5 year, and which experienced a muted drop in intermediate-term rates, the housing bubble was more muted than in neighboring US.[2][9]
Statistics[edit]
Main article: List of countries by household debt
Among OECD countries, the larger share of all household debt is represented by mortgages, the incidence of which varies across countries, between 60% and 90% of total household debt.[10]
2022 Household debt[11]No.Country% of GDP
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
United States[edit]
Other
Student loans
Credit cards
Auto loans
Home equity revolving line of credit
Mortgage
U.S. household (HH) debt (measured by the FRED variable "CMDEBT")[12] rose relative to both GDP and disposable income over the 1980 to 2011 period.Household debt as a % disposable income rose from 68% in 1980 to a peak of 128% in 2007, prior to dropping to 112% by 2011.
Household debt as a % nominal GDP rose from 47% in 1980 to a peak of 94% in 2009, prior to dropping to 77% in 2012.[13]
U.S. household debt rose from nearly zero in the 1950s to $13.8 trillion in 2008, before declining to $12.9 trillion by Q2 2012.[14]
Consumer credit outstanding includes credit cards, auto loans, student loans, and other types of household debt, but excludes mortgages. It rose from 14.0% GDP in January 1990 to 18.0% GDP by January 2009. It fell to a trough of 16.4% GDP in July 2010 and was back up to 17.5% GDP by January 2013.[15]
In United States[edit]
Main article: Subprime mortgage crisis
Contribution to the 2008 financial crisis[edit]
This increase in debt from 1980 to 2007 enabled spending that stimulated the economy, arguably "papering over" or hiding the sustainable economic growth rate excluding this increase in leverage. This debt overhang then began holding back the economy as consumers paid down debt (which reduces economic activity) rather than spending.[16]
Paul Krugman wrote in December 2010: "The root of our current troubles lies in the debt American families ran up during the Bush-era housing bubble. Twenty years ago, the average American household’s debt was 83 percent of its income; by a decade ago, that had crept up to 92 percent; but by late 2007, debts were 130 percent of income. All this borrowing took place both because banks had abandoned any notion of sound lending and because everyone assumed that house prices would never fall. And then the bubble burst. What we’ve been dealing with ever since is a painful process of 'deleveraging': highly indebted Americans not only can't spend the way they used to, they're having to pay down the debts they ran up in the bubble years. This would be fine if someone else were taking up the slack. But what's actually happening is that some people are spending much less while nobody is spending more—and this translates into a depressed economy and high unemployment. What the government should be doing in this situation is spending more while the private sector is spending less, supporting employment while those debts are paid down. And this government spending needs to be sustained: we're not talking about a brief burst of aid; we’re talking about spending that lasts long enough for households to get their debts back under control. The original Obama stimulus wasn’t just too small; it was also much too short-lived, with much of the positive effect already gone."[17]
In April 2009, U.S. Federal Reserve Vice Chair Janet Yellen discussed the situation: "Once this massive credit crunch hit, it didn’t take long before we were in a recession. The recession, in turn, deepened the credit crunch as demand and employment fell, and credit losses of financial institutions surged. Indeed, we have been in the grips of precisely this adverse feedback loop for more than a year. A process of balance sheet deleveraging [paying down debt] has spread to nearly every corner of the economy. Consumers are pulling back on purchases, especially on durable goods, to build their savings. Businesses are cancelling planned investments and laying off workers to preserve cash. And, financial institutions are shrinking assets to bolster capital and improve their chances of weathering the current storm. Once again, Minsky understood this dynamic. He spoke of the paradox of deleveraging, in which precautions that may be smart for individuals and firms—and indeed essential to return the economy to a normal state—nevertheless magnify the distress of the economy as a whole."[18]
The policy prescription of Ms Yellen's predecessor Mr Bernanke was to increase the money supply and artificially reduce interest rates. This stoked another debt and asset bubble. Mr Krugman's policy was to ensure that such borrowing took place at the federal government level, to be repaid via taxes on the individuals who he admitted were already overburdened with their own debts. These policies were arguably a mere return to the policies that inflated the debt bubble in the first place.
Economists Atif Mian and Amir Sufi wrote in 2014 that:Historically, severe economic downturns are almost always preceded by a sharp increase in household debt.
U.S. household spending declines were largest in geographic areas with a combination of higher household debt and larger price declines.
When housing prices fall, poorer homeowners (with a larger proportion of their net worth in their home) are hit the hardest financially and reduce their consumption relatively more than wealthier households.
Declines in residential investment preceded the recession and were followed by reductions in household spending and then non-residential business investment as the recession worsened.[3]
Effects on economic growth[edit]
Ezra Klein wrote in August 2011: "[W]hat distinguishes crises like this one from typical recessions is household debt. When the financial markets collapsed, household debt was nearly 100 percent of GDP. It’s now down to 90 percent. In 1982, which was the last time we had a big recession, the household-debt-to-GDP ratio was about 45 percent. That means that in this crisis, indebted households can’t spend, which means businesses can’t spend, which means that unless government steps into the breach in a massive way or until households work through their debt burden, we can’t recover. In the 1982 recession, households could spend, and so when the Federal Reserve lowered interest rates and made spending attractive, we accelerated out of the recession. The utility of calling this downturn a “household-debt crisis” is it tells you where to put your focus: you either need to make consumers better able to pay their debts, which you can do through conventional stimulus policy like tax cuts and jobs programs, or you need to make their debts smaller so they're better able to pay them, which you can do by forgiving some of their debt through policies like [mortgage principal reduction] or eroding the value of their debt by increasing inflation. I’ve heard various economist make various smart points about why we should prefer one approach or the other, and it also happens to be the case that the two policies support each other and so we don't actually need to choose between them. All of these solutions, of course, have drawbacks: if you put the government deeper into debt in order to help households now, you increase the risk of a public-debt crisis later. That's why it's wise to pair further short-term stimulus with a large amount of long-term deficit reduction. If you force banks to swallow losses or face inflation now, you need to worry about whether they'll be able to keep lending at a pace that will support recovery over the next few years. But as we’re seeing, not doing enough isn't a safe strategy, either."[19]
Economist Amir Sufi at the University of Chicago argued in July 2011 that a high level of household debt was holding back the U.S. economy. Households focused on paying down private debt are not able to consume at historical levels. He advocates mortgage write-downs and other debt-related solutions to re-invigorate the economy when household debt levels are exceptionally high.[20] Several European countries also had high household debt levels relative to historical averages leading up to the European sovereign-debt crisis. Recent research also supports the view that excessive household leverage has contributed to the weakness in consumption.[21]
Effects on employment[edit]
Rana Foroohar wrote in July 2012: "[R]esearch shows that the majority of job losses in the U.S. since the Great Recession were due to lower consumer spending because of household debt, a decline that resulted in layoffs at U.S. firms. Parting back debt is the precursor to greater spending and greater growth."[22]
Effects on economic recovery[edit]
Neil Irwin explained the economic effects of rising consumer credit outstanding (i.e., all types of household debt other than mortgages) in July 2013: "Americans are finally feeling more confident about the economy and thus willing to take on debt. Lenders, meanwhile, are growing more comfortable extending loans. The spending enabled by this rising consumer debt can help create a virtuous cycle in which more demand for goods and services creates more jobs, which creates rising income. Indeed, more borrowing by households (and the spending that results) is likely offsetting some of the pain caused by federal spending cuts and deficit reduction."[23]
Charts of U.S. household debt variables[edit]FRED – Household Debt to GDP Ratio
FRED - Mortgage and Consumer Credit Debt Relative to GDP
FRED - Household Debt Dollars (CMDEBT)
FRED - Change in Household Debt Dollars by Quarter (CMDEBT)
FRED – Household Debt Service Payments as a Percent of Disposable Personal Income (TDSP)
FRED – Household Financial Obligations as a Percent of Disposable Personal Income (FODSP)
Reducing household debt[edit]
Household debt can be challenging to reduce. Major approaches include:Paying down debt over time from income or accumulated savings, if available
Debt write-down or refinancing via negotiation, bankruptcy or government bailout
Inflation, although if wage increases do not exceed inflation, this approach is mostly academic
Paying off debt from income or savings[edit]
Since most middle income households have the majority of their wealth invested in their home, paying down debt from income can take a decade or longer when a housing bubble bursts, as it did for much of the developed world in 2007–2012. For example, this debt accumulated over a 30-year period (1980–2007 peak) in the U.S. and much of the increase was mortgage-related.
Debt restructuring or write-down[edit]
Debt can sometimes be reduced by negotiation with creditors or by a legal bankruptcy process, which can result in dismissal of certain types of debt such as credit cards. Some lenders may agree to write down mortgage values (reducing the homeowner's obligation) rather than taking even larger losses in foreclosure.[24] Economist Joseph Stiglitz argued for a rapid bankruptcy process for homeowners, to allow debts to be written down.[25]
Economists Joseph Stiglitz and Mark Zandi both advocated significant mortgage refinancing or write-downs in August 2012. They explained that more than four million Americans lost their homes since the housing bubble began bursting in 2006. An additional 3.5 million homeowners are in the foreclosure process or are so delinquent on payments that they will be soon. Roughly 13.5 million homeowners are underwater (in negative equity), meaning they owe more than their home is now worth, increasing the odds that millions more will lose their homes. The household debt and foreclosures are significantly holding back the economy.[26]
Economists Kenneth S. Rogoff and Carmen M. Reinhart wrote in April 2013: "In the United States, we support reducing mortgage principal on homes that are underwater (where the mortgage is higher than the value of the home). We have also written about plausible solutions that involve moderately higher inflation and “financial repression” — pushing down inflation-adjusted interest rates, which effectively amounts to a tax on bondholders. This strategy contributed to the significant debt reductions that followed World War II.[27]
Professor Luigi Zingales (University of Chicago) advocated a mortgage debt for equity swap in July 2009, where the mortgage debt would be written down in exchange for the bank taking an interest in future appreciation of the home upon sale (a debt-for-equity swap).[28] Fund Manager John Hussman also advocated debt-for-equity swaps for households and banks during April 2009.[29]
Journalist Steven Clemons wrote in July 2012: "The Great Recession of 2008–2009, from which there are still repercussions in the US and global economies, resulted from a massive surge in consumer loans—98% in just five years—and ... the combined total of US business and consumer loans is basically at the same level as at the moment this crisis hit." He argued for debt forgiveness or restructuring to help stimulate the economy.[30][31]
During the Great Depression, the U.S. created the Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC), which acquired and refinanced one million delinquent mortgages between 1933 and 1936.[32]
Inflation[edit]
If wages increase due to inflation, but debts remain fixed, the debts can be more easily repaid. Economists may advocate increasing inflation to help reduce the debt burden in highly leveraged economies. For example, economist Kenneth Rogoff has advocated both mortgage write-downs and inflation during August 2011: "I argued that the only practical way to shorten the coming period of painful deleveraging and slow growth would be a sustained burst of moderate inflation, say, 4–6% for several years. Of course, inflation is an unfair and arbitrary transfer of income from savers to debtors. But, at the end of the day, such a transfer is the most direct approach to faster recovery. Eventually, it will take place one way or another, anyway, as Europe is painfully learning." He also suggested that the government could take an equity interest in the homes in exchange for paying down the mortgages.[33]
Household over-indebtedness[edit]
While it is challenging to define over-indebtedness, definitions of over-indebtedness tend to have a few core elements in common. The first one refers to the capacity to meet the expenses associated with the contracted financial commitments. Over-indebtedness implies an inability to meet such recurring expenses. Second, this inability is structural. This is the time dimension, which holds that the definition must capture persistent and ongoing financial problems and exclude one-off occurrences that arise due to forgetfulness, for instance. The third core element refers to standard of living. The household must be unable to meet contracted commitments without reducing its minimum standard of living expenses. Fourth, comes illiquidity. The household is unable to remedy the situation by recourse to (financial and non-financial) assets and other financial sources such as credit. Lastly, all contracted financial commitments are included, among them mortgage and consumer credit commitments, utility and telephone bills as well as rent payments (recurring expenses).[34]
Causes of over-indebtedness can be diverse. A 'risky life event' (for example, unemployment, relationship break-up, leaving the parental home, business failure, illness or unexpected home repairs. Such events can trigger income and expenditure shocks) can lie at the root, sometimes instantly turning indebtedness into over-indebtedness. Other households have unconsciously, or consciously, gradually become over-committed. They make use of available forms of credit, sometimes without realizing that they might not be able to repay in the future. Lack of financial management skills and aggressive marketing by lenders may both lie at the origin of this. Another potential cause includes escalating consumption habits. The third group of people are the least well-off. They need to obtain credit in order to attain a reasonable standard of living. They are frequently subject to relatively high interest rates. Potential consequences for the over-indebted household include financial hardship, depression, poor health, relationship breakdown, exclusion from basic financial services, a strain on social relations, absenteeism at work and lack of organizational commitment, a feeling of insecurity.[35]
Responses to household over-indebtedness can be preventive, alleviative and rehabilitative. Preventive measures include financial education and regulation. An example of the last is the European Union's "Directive on Credit Agreements for Consumers Household debt advisory services". It stipulates, for example, that lenders should list the interest rates they change in a homogenized way (yearly rates) and that paper contracts should be signed for debts above a certain amounts, thus inhibiting for example impulsive borrowing through SMS-loans. Alleviative measures include debt advisory services, which aim to help households getting their finances back on track, mainly by means of information provision, budget planning and balancing, help with legal arrangements, negotiation with creditors, providing psychological support by having someone to talk to, and even by effectively, voluntarily taking over the managing of a household's finances. Rehabilitative measures include consumer bankruptcy and legal debt settlement procedures. While precise arrangements vary largely between countries, in general such procedures work as follows. During such procedures, the over-indebted household hands over all income above a minimum threshold to the creditors/state and is cleared of its debts after the period, varying in length from for example 1 year in the UK to 5 in Portugal and 12 in Ireland.[36]
External References[edit]
Federal Reserve Bank of New York - Quarterly Report on Household Credit and Debt
McKinsey & Company – Debt and Deleveraging – 2012 Update
How to Predict the Next Financial Crisis-Clemons and Vague-July 2012
Mian and Sufi – What Explains High Unemployment? The Deleveraging – Aggregate Demand Hypothesis-October 2011
Krugman and Eggertsson – Debt, Deleveraging, and the Liquidity Trap: A Fisher‐Minsky‐Koo approach – Revised February 2011
Haliassos, Michael. Household Portfolios. Second Edition Ed. Steven Durlauf and Lawrence Blume. Palgrave Macmillan,2008 The New Palgrave Dictionary of *EconomicsOnline..Palgrave Macmillan. 9 Sept. 2011. <http:/www.dictionary of economics.com>.
Bertola, Giuseppe, Richard Disney, and Charles Grant. The Economics of Consumer Credit. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2006. N. pag. Print.
Agarwal, Sumit, and Brent W. Ambrose. Household Credit Usage. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. N. pag. Print.
Olney, Martha L. Buy Now Pay Later. Chapel Hill Ans London: The North Carolina Press, 1991. Print.
Schutz, Howard G., Pamela C. Baird, and Glenn R. Hawkes. Lifestyles and Consumer Behavior of Older Americans. New York: Praeger Publishing, 1979. Print.
Kasser, Tim, and Allen D. Kanner. Psychology and Consumer Culture. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2004. Print.
References[edit]
^ NYT-Paul Krugman-Block those Metaphors-December 2010
^ Jump up to:a b IMF-Report Extract Chapter 3 – April 2012
^ Jump up to:a b Mian, Atif and, Sufi, Amir (2014). House of Debt. University of Chicago. ISBN 978-0-226-08194-6.
^ U.S. Federal Reserve-Household Debt Service and Financial Obligations Ratios
^ Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, Welfare Implications of the Transition to High Household Debt, November 2006
^ "10 Years after the Great Recession, New Threats Have Appeared". Analytics: Seeing Trends in the Data. Fortune (Paper periodical). Graphics by Nicolas Rapp: 11. 1 October 2018.
^ NYT-Rise in Household Debt Might Be Sign of a Strengthening Recovery-Annie Lowrey-October 2012
^ "Average American Debt in 2024: Household Debt Statistics". Business Insider.
^ "McKinsey-Debt and deleveraging: The global credit bubble and its economic consequences-Updated-July 2011". Archived from the original on 2013-03-07. Retrieved 2012-07-13.
^ Comelli, Martino (2021). "The impact of welfare on household debt". Sociological Spectrum. 41 (2): 154–176. doi:10.1080/02732173.2021.1875088. hdl:20.500.14018/13843.
^ "Household debt, loans and debt securities". IMF.
^ Fred Database-CMDEBT Variable-Retrieved July 2012
^ FRED-Household Debt as Percent of GDP-Retrieved September 2013
^ "U.S. Federal Reserve-FRED Database-Retrieved July 2012". Archived from the original on 2012-02-12. Retrieved 2012-07-12.
^ Federal Reserve Database-Consumer Credit as % GDP-Retrieved July 2013
^ Project Syndicate-Joseph Stiglitz-To Cure the Economy-October 2011
^ NYT=-Paul Krugman-Block those Economic Metaphors-December 2010
^ "Federal Reserve-Janet Yellen-A Minsky Meltdown-April 2009". Archived from the original on 2013-01-05. Retrieved 2012-07-12.
^ Washington Post-Ezra Klein-It's the Household Debt, Stupid-August 2011
^ Bloomberg-Household Debt is at Heart of Weak U.S. Economy-July 2011
^ Brookings Institution, Is a Household Debt Overhang Holding Back Consumption?, Spring 2012 Archived 2012-10-31 at the Wayback Machine
^ Time Magazine-Foroohar-Digging out of the Debt Hole-July 2012
^ Washington Post-Neil Irwin-Consumer Debt is Soaring-July 2013
^ NYT-Joe Nocera-November 2011
^ Justice for Some Project Syndicate-Joseph Stiglitz-Justice for Some-November 2010
^ NYT-Stiglitz and Zandi-The One Housing Solution Left-Mass Mortgage Refinancing-August 2012
^ NYT-Reinhart and Rogoff-Debt, Growth and the Austerity Debate-April 2013
^ "Time For A New Mortgage Plan: Debt-For-Equity Swaps-July 2009". Archived from the original on 2013-01-18. Retrieved 2012-07-12.
^ Hussman Funds Newsletter-John Hussman-April 2009
^ The Atlantic-Economic Growth Idea: Forgive or Restructure Debt U.S. Citizens Hold-Clemons-July 2012
^ The Atlantic-Clemons and Vague-How to Predict the Next Financial Crisis-July 2012
^ Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis-The Federal Response to Home Mortgage Distress: Lessons from the Great Depression-June 2008
^ Project Syndicate-Kenneth Rogoff-The Second Great Contraction-August 2011
^ European Commission 2008 Towards a common operational European definition of over-indebtedness
^ Eurofound 2010 Managing household debts: Social service provision in the EU
^ Eurofound 2012 Household debt advisory services in the European Union
Category: Debt
McKinsey & Company – Debt and Deleveraging – 2012 Update
How to Predict the Next Financial Crisis-Clemons and Vague-July 2012
Mian and Sufi – What Explains High Unemployment? The Deleveraging – Aggregate Demand Hypothesis-October 2011
Krugman and Eggertsson – Debt, Deleveraging, and the Liquidity Trap: A Fisher‐Minsky‐Koo approach – Revised February 2011
Haliassos, Michael. Household Portfolios. Second Edition Ed. Steven Durlauf and Lawrence Blume. Palgrave Macmillan,2008 The New Palgrave Dictionary of *EconomicsOnline..Palgrave Macmillan. 9 Sept. 2011. <http:/www.dictionary of economics.com>.
Bertola, Giuseppe, Richard Disney, and Charles Grant. The Economics of Consumer Credit. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2006. N. pag. Print.
Agarwal, Sumit, and Brent W. Ambrose. Household Credit Usage. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. N. pag. Print.
Olney, Martha L. Buy Now Pay Later. Chapel Hill Ans London: The North Carolina Press, 1991. Print.
Schutz, Howard G., Pamela C. Baird, and Glenn R. Hawkes. Lifestyles and Consumer Behavior of Older Americans. New York: Praeger Publishing, 1979. Print.
Kasser, Tim, and Allen D. Kanner. Psychology and Consumer Culture. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2004. Print.
References[edit]
^ NYT-Paul Krugman-Block those Metaphors-December 2010
^ Jump up to:a b IMF-Report Extract Chapter 3 – April 2012
^ Jump up to:a b Mian, Atif and, Sufi, Amir (2014). House of Debt. University of Chicago. ISBN 978-0-226-08194-6.
^ U.S. Federal Reserve-Household Debt Service and Financial Obligations Ratios
^ Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, Welfare Implications of the Transition to High Household Debt, November 2006
^ "10 Years after the Great Recession, New Threats Have Appeared". Analytics: Seeing Trends in the Data. Fortune (Paper periodical). Graphics by Nicolas Rapp: 11. 1 October 2018.
^ NYT-Rise in Household Debt Might Be Sign of a Strengthening Recovery-Annie Lowrey-October 2012
^ "Average American Debt in 2024: Household Debt Statistics". Business Insider.
^ "McKinsey-Debt and deleveraging: The global credit bubble and its economic consequences-Updated-July 2011". Archived from the original on 2013-03-07. Retrieved 2012-07-13.
^ Comelli, Martino (2021). "The impact of welfare on household debt". Sociological Spectrum. 41 (2): 154–176. doi:10.1080/02732173.2021.1875088. hdl:20.500.14018/13843.
^ "Household debt, loans and debt securities". IMF.
^ Fred Database-CMDEBT Variable-Retrieved July 2012
^ FRED-Household Debt as Percent of GDP-Retrieved September 2013
^ "U.S. Federal Reserve-FRED Database-Retrieved July 2012". Archived from the original on 2012-02-12. Retrieved 2012-07-12.
^ Federal Reserve Database-Consumer Credit as % GDP-Retrieved July 2013
^ Project Syndicate-Joseph Stiglitz-To Cure the Economy-October 2011
^ NYT=-Paul Krugman-Block those Economic Metaphors-December 2010
^ "Federal Reserve-Janet Yellen-A Minsky Meltdown-April 2009". Archived from the original on 2013-01-05. Retrieved 2012-07-12.
^ Washington Post-Ezra Klein-It's the Household Debt, Stupid-August 2011
^ Bloomberg-Household Debt is at Heart of Weak U.S. Economy-July 2011
^ Brookings Institution, Is a Household Debt Overhang Holding Back Consumption?, Spring 2012 Archived 2012-10-31 at the Wayback Machine
^ Time Magazine-Foroohar-Digging out of the Debt Hole-July 2012
^ Washington Post-Neil Irwin-Consumer Debt is Soaring-July 2013
^ NYT-Joe Nocera-November 2011
^ Justice for Some Project Syndicate-Joseph Stiglitz-Justice for Some-November 2010
^ NYT-Stiglitz and Zandi-The One Housing Solution Left-Mass Mortgage Refinancing-August 2012
^ NYT-Reinhart and Rogoff-Debt, Growth and the Austerity Debate-April 2013
^ "Time For A New Mortgage Plan: Debt-For-Equity Swaps-July 2009". Archived from the original on 2013-01-18. Retrieved 2012-07-12.
^ Hussman Funds Newsletter-John Hussman-April 2009
^ The Atlantic-Economic Growth Idea: Forgive or Restructure Debt U.S. Citizens Hold-Clemons-July 2012
^ The Atlantic-Clemons and Vague-How to Predict the Next Financial Crisis-July 2012
^ Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis-The Federal Response to Home Mortgage Distress: Lessons from the Great Depression-June 2008
^ Project Syndicate-Kenneth Rogoff-The Second Great Contraction-August 2011
^ European Commission 2008 Towards a common operational European definition of over-indebtedness
^ Eurofound 2010 Managing household debts: Social service provision in the EU
^ Eurofound 2012 Household debt advisory services in the European Union
Category: Debt
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