아소카
다른 뜻에 대해서는 아소카 (동음이의) 문서를 참고하십시오.아소카 𑀅𑀲𑁄𑀓 | |
|---|---|
| 데바남피야 피야다시 차크라바르틴 | |
 라마그라마 스투파 및 산치 스투파를 방문하러 가는 아소카 | |
 아소카차크라 | |
| 마우리아 황제 | |
| 재위 | 기원전 268년 ~ 기원전 232년 |
| 즉위식 | 기원전 268년 |
| 전임 | 빈두사라 |
| 후임 | 다사라타 |
| 재상 | 라다굽타 |
| 아반티라슈트라 부왕 | |
| 재임 | 빈두사라 치세 |
| 이름 | |
| 휘 | 아소카 마우리아 |
| 별호 | 데바남피야 피야다시 차크라바르틴 |
| 신상정보 | |
| 출생일 | 기원전 304년 |
| 사망일 | 기원전 232년 |
| 국적 | 마우리아 제국 |
| 왕조 | 마우리아 |
| 가문 | 마우리아 |
| 부친 | 빈두사라 |
| 배우자 | 파드마바티 카루바키 티슈야라크샤 아산디미트라 베디사 마하데비 샤카쿠마리 |
| 자녀 | 쿠날라 티발라 차루마티 상가미트라 마헨드라 |
| 종교 | 불교 |
| 군사 경력 | |
| 주요 참전 | 칼링가 전쟁 |
아소카(𑀅𑀲𑁄𑀓, 산스크리트어: अशोकः 아쇼카)는 마우리아 제국의 제3대 황제이다. 인도 아대륙의 대부분을 통일함으로써 마우리아 제국의 전성기를 이끌었다.
찬드라굽타 마우리아의 손자이며, 인도에서 가장 위대한 황제의 하나로서 전륜성왕(삼라트 차크라바르틴)으로 인용된다. 아소카는 수많은 군사 정복뒤에 오늘날의 인도 대부분을 지배하였다. 아소카 시대 마우리아 제국은 지금의 파키스탄, 아프가니스탄과 서쪽 페르시아 제국의 일부, 동쪽으로는 인도의 아삼 주 남쪽으로는 미소레 주까지 세력을 넓혔다.
그러나 전쟁의 비참함을 깊이 느껴 불교를 융성하게 하고 비폭력을 진흥하고 윤리에 의한 통치를 실현하고자 하였다. 곳곳에 절을 세우고 불교를 정리하였으며, 실론·타이·버마에까지 불교를 전파하기 위해 노력하였다. 총애하는 왕비를 잃고 고독과 번민 속에서 죽었으며, 아라한의 자리에 올랐다.
생애[편집]
재위 이전[편집]
아소카는 기원전 304년에 빈두사라와 어느 브라만 여성의 아들로 태어났다. 기록에 따르면 아소카는 못생긴 얼굴을 지니고 있었으며 이 때문에 아버지인 빈두사라는 아소카를 멀리하고 자신의 다른 아들인 수시마를 편애하였다. 한편 빈두사라 재위 도중 마우리아 제국에서는 반란이 자주 발생하였는데, 탁실라를 주도로 하는 웃타라파타(북부 속주)에서 반란이 대표적으로 이 지역에서의 반란을 진압하기 위해 파견된 아소카가 웃타라파타 사람들이 이 속주를 담당하는 관리의 횡포로 인해 반란을 일으킨 것을 안 후 그 관리에게 처벌을 내림으로서 평화적으로 반란을 진압함으로써 탁실라 사람들의 지지를 얻게 되고 자신의 군대 또한 확장하였으며, 탁실라 인근에서 발생한 반란 또한 진압하며 시민들의 강력한 지지를 얻게 되었다.
이후 기원전 273년에 원인을 알 수 없는 병에 걸려 죽음을 직감한 빈두사라는 제국의 차기 군주로 아소카가 아닌 당시 웃타라파타 지역에 또다시 발생한 반란을 진압하기 위해 부왕으로 파견된 수시마를 차기 군주로 지명한 후 한 신하에게 수시마를 불러와 황위에 앉히고 대신 이전에 웃타라파타에서의 반란을 진압한 전적이 있는 아소카를 다시 파견해 반란을 재진압하도록 명령하였지만, 이 반란 자체가 그 신하가 수시마에게 앙금을 품고 당시 우자인을 주도로 하는 아반티파타(서부 속주)에 부왕으로 파견되어 있던 아소카를 황위에 앉히기 위해 웃타라파타의 시민들을 선동하여 꾸민 자작극이었으며 이 소식을 들은 아소카는 수시마보다 먼저 파탈리푸트라에 귀환하였다. 귀환한 아소카는 자신들을 지지하는 신하들과 함께 빈두사라를 찾아가 수시마가 아닌 아소카가 황위를 이어야 한다고 설득하였고 이에 빈두사라는 분노하며 이를 거절하였지만, 이 일로 화병까지 겹친 빈두사라는 얼마 안가 세상을 떠났고 아소카는 사실상 마우리아의 차기 황제가 되었다. 한편 반란을 진압하던 수시마는 이 소식을 들고 아소카가 있는 파탈리푸트라를 공격하였는데, 당시 마우리아 제국의 재상이었던 라다굽타는 파탈리푸트라의 동쪽 성문에다 여러 가지 기계 장치와 아소카의 동상과 군사들의 상을 만들고, 그 주위에 불구덩이가 덮어진 함정을 만든 후 수시마와 그의 군사들을 이쪽으로 유인해 함정에 빠뜨려 죽였다. 수시마 이외에도 자신을 반대하는 세력이 대두하자 아소카는 4년에 걸쳐 99명의 이복 형제들, 자신에게 반대하는 500명의 신하들, 선왕인 빈두사라의 후궁들을 숙청하였으며, 4년후인 기원전 269년에 숙청 작업이 완료되자 대관식을 치르며 마우리아 제국의 3대 황제로 공식 즉위하였다.
재위 이후[편집]
아소카가 대관식을 치르던 당시 오디샤의 해안 지역을 중심으로 형성되어 예로부터 교역에 유리한 항구들을 지녔던 칼링가 왕국은 강력한 해군을 동원하여 마우리아 제국의 주요 해상 무역로들을 차단하였는데,[1] 이로 인해 칼링가 왕국을 눈엣가시로 여기던 아소카는 결국 대관식을 치른 지 1년 뒤인 기원전 268년에 칼링가 정벌을 개시하였다. 초기에는 칼링가의 군대를 과소평가한 나머지 소수의 군대만을 파견하여 칼링가군에게 패배를 겪었으나 이후 기원전 265년에 아소카가 직접 당시 보병 60만, 기병 10만, 코끼리 부대 9천마리로 구성된 대군을 이끌고 직접 원정에 나섰고 칼링가의 입구인 마하나디강에 도착하였다. 이 강을 건너가던 도중 아소카는 칼을 강물에 빠뜨렸는데, 이를 본 군사들을 불길한 예감에 철군을 요청하였으며 이에 아소카는 부하들의 불길한 예감을 떨쳐버리고 군대의 사기를 독려시키기 위하여 더 공격적인 자세로 진군에 나섰다. 마침내 마하나디강의 지류인 다와강에서 마우리아군과 칼링가군이 마주치면서 전면전이 발생하였으며, 이 전투에서 칼링가가 패배하며 칼링가는 마우리아 제국에 정복되었다. 이 전투로 칼링가군 10만명이 사망하고 칼링가인 15만명이 포로로 이송되었으며, 전투가 끝난 직후의 칼링가 마을에서 무수한 시체들과 고아가 된 아이들의 미쳐버린 모습을 보며 충격을 받은 아소카는 전쟁에 회의심을 가지게 되면서 마우리아 제국의 영토 확장을 중지하게 되었다.[2]
칼링가 전쟁이 끝난지 4년후인 기원전 261년에 불교에 귀의한 아소카는 "다르마에 의한 정복"을 표방하며 불교 기반의 통치를 시행하였는데, 마우리아 제국 전역에 약초 재배지, 정신병원, 동물병원, 고아원, 양로원 등을 건설하였고 병원에서 사람들을 무료로 치료하도록 하거나 곡식을 매우 싼 이자에 빌려주는 등 복지 제도를 크게 확충시켰으며, 물이 없는 마을에 노동력을 동원해 우물을 파거나 제국의 영토 곳곳에 도로·관개(灌漑) 등의 공공사업을 시행하는 등 중앙 집권 체제를 발전시켰다. 특히 마우리아의 각 속주에 설치된 하위 행정 단위인 "아하라"(군현) 지역에 지방관직의 "프라데시카"와 토지 측정관직의 "라주카"를 5년 임기제로 지방에 파견시키는 제도를 실시하여 지방 행정을 더욱 체계화시켰으며, 이를 통해 백성들의 실제 생활에 대한 정보를 수집하고 지방 통치에 부조리가 없는 지를 감찰함으로써 안정적인 통치를 꾀했다. 아소카는 황궁에서 가축의 도살을 금지시킨 후 동물의 도살과 사냥에 대해 규제하는 법을 반포하였으며, 이 외에도 강제노동을 금지하거나 불교 이외의 아지비카교, 브라만교, 자이나교, 바가바트교와 같이 제국에 존재하는 다른 종교들도 허용하며 신앙의 자유를 인정하는 등 다르마에 기초를 둔 불교 이념을 통치 정책에 반영하면서 불교를 세계적인 종교로 발전하는 기반을 조성하는 데 크게 기여하였다. 사리를 보관하는 불탑 또한 아소카 치세부터 본격적으로 건립되기 시작하였는데, 석가모니 열반 직후 구성된 8개의 불탑에 안치된 사리를 꺼내 이를 고운 가루로 만들어 인도 전역에 8만 4000기의 불탑을 조성했으며, 이때 산치 스투파, 다르마라지카 스투파, 붓카라 스투파 등이 건설되었다.
아소카는 자신의 가르침과 사업을 널리 알리기 위해 구두 포고뿐만 아니라 인도 전역의 동굴이나 석주에 규정들을 세긴 아소카 칙령을 선포한 후 이를 전국에 세웠다. 이 칙령들은 대부분 마가다 프라크리트어로 쓰였지만 그리스어, 아람어로도 쓰인 것들도 있는데, 이 칙령은 야바나인, 캄보자인. 간다라인들을 제국의 국경 지대에 사는 사람들로 언급하고 있으며, 아소카가 지중해에 이르기까지 서부의 디아도코이 통치자들에게 불교 선교사들과 외교 사절을 보냈다는 것에 대한 언급도 담겨있다. 또한 칙령은 안티오코스, 프톨레마이오스, 안티고노스, 마가스 및 에피로스의 알렉산드로스 2세 등 당시 디아도코이 지도자들에 대해서도 언급하고 있으며, 당시 마우리아 제국과 그리스 세계 사이의 거리(약 4,000 마일)에 대해서도 언급되어 있다.[3] 이 아소카 석주들 중에서도 가장 유명한 석주인 사르나트의 4사자 석주는 오늘날 인도의 국장으로 사용될 정도로 균형미와 기법의 정교함을 인정받고 있으며, 이 석주에 새겨진 법륜 문양인 아소카차크라는 오늘날 인도 국기의 정중앙에도 볼 수 있다. 아소카는 기원전 232년에 사망하였다.
종교 전파[편집]
스리랑카 불교에 미친 영향[편집]
이 부분의 본문은 스리랑카 불교입니다.기원전 3세기 스리랑카의 아누라다푸라 왕국에 데바남피야 티샤 왕이 집권하던 시절, 아소카 황제의 아들이자 상좌부 불교의 장로인 마힌다가 아소카의 명령으로 스리랑카를 방문하면서 스리랑카에 불교가 포교되었다. 데바남피야 티샤 왕은 바로 불교에 귀의하였으며, 아누라다푸라에 마힌다 장로를 위한 큰 사원(大寺: Mahavihara)를 세웠는데, 이것이 바로 훗날 대사파의 기원이 되었다. 대사의 창건은 상좌부 불교 역사에서 가장 중요한 역사적 사건이다. 현재의 남방 상좌부 불교 모두가 마힌다의 대사 창건에 그 기원을 두고 있다.[4]
기독교에 미친 영향[편집]
이 부분의 본문은 불교와 기독교입니다.유명한 역사학자이자 저술가인 윌듀란트(Will Durant)는 아소카 왕이 불교 선교사들을 인도의 모든 지역과 스리랑카, 시리아, 이집트, 그리스까지 보냈으며, 아마도 이들이 기독교 윤리학(ethics of Christ)을 만드는 데 도움을 주었을 것이라고 지적한다.[5]
미국의 역사학자 케네스 스콧 라두렛(Kenneth Scott Latourette)에 따르면 예수가 태어난 시기에 "불교는 이미 인도, 실론(스리랑카), 중앙 아시아, 중국에 널리 퍼져있었다."고 한다.[6]
기원전 270년무렵 인도에서는 아소카 왕이 집권했다. 집권 이후에 그는 불교로 개종하였으며, 선교사들을 전 세계에 파견해서 석가모니의 가르침을 전파했다. 아소카 왕은 그의 포교활동이 서방 국가에게 우호적으로 수용되었다고 기록하였다.
일부 학자들은 예수가 불교의 영향을 받았으며, 토마스 복음서와 나그 함마디 텍스트(Nag Hammadi texts)는 이러한 불교의 영향을 받았다고 믿는다.[7]
갤러리[편집]
각주[편집]
- ↑ Roy, K. (2015). Military Manpower, Armies and Warfare in South Asia. Warfare, Society and Culture. Taylor & Francis. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-317-32128-6. Retrieved 28 June 2019.
- ↑ Guruge, Ananda W. P. (1995). "Emperor Aśoka and Buddhism: Unresolved Discrepancies between Buddhist Tradition & Aśokan Inscriptions". In Anuradha Seneviratna (ed.). King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies. Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 978-955-24-0065-0.
- ↑ Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, translation S. Dhammika.
- ↑ 김영고 동국대 교수, 남방불교의 어제와 오늘 - 남방불교의 略史[깨진 링크(과거 내용 찾기)], 월간불광 2008년 3월호
- ↑ Will Durant, The Story of Civilization: Our Oriental Heritage, Part One (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1935), vol. 1, p. 449
- ↑ Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1975). A History of Christianity. p. 274
- ↑ 민희식, 법화경과 신약성서, 블루리본, 2007
같이 보기[편집]
외부 링크[편집]
- 네이버캐스트 - 아소카왕[깨진 링크(과거 내용 찾기)]
- 한글대장경 아육왕경 Archived 2016년 1월 30일 - 웨이백 머신
- 한글대장경 아육왕경 Archived 2016년 1월 30일 - 웨이백 머신
- 한글대장경 아육왕태자법익괴목인연경 Archived 2016년 1월 30일 - 웨이백 머신
| 전 대 빈두사라 | 제3대 마우리아 황제 기원전 273년 ~ 기원전 232년 | 후 대 다사라타 마우리아 |
아쇼카
| 아쇼카 A-soka | |
|---|---|
| 마우리아 아침 라자 | |
 Ashoka의 구호 | |
| 재위 | 기원전 268 년경 - 기원전 232 년경 |
| 출생 | 기원전 304년 파타립트라 |
| 죽음 | 기원전 232년 파타립트라 |
| 배우자 | 아산디 미트라 |
| 칼바키 | |
| 데비 | |
| 자녀 | 쿠 나라 자라 우카마힌다 (제설 있음) 산가미터 |
| 왕조 | 마우리아 아침 |
| 아버지 | 빈두사라 |
아쇼카 (梵: अशोकः , IAST : Aśokaḥ ,巴: Asoka , 번역: 무우<무우>, 재위: 기원전 268 년경 - 기원전 232 년경 )는 마우리아의 제3대 라자 이다.
한역 음사에서는 아육왕 으로 쓰인다. 인도 아대륙을 거의 통일했다(인도 사상 최대).
석존 멸 후 약 100년(또는 200년)에 나타났다는 전설도 있는 아쇼카는 고대 인도 에서 불교 를 수호한 것으로 알려져 있다. 아쇼카 라고도 표기된다. 아쇼카의 이름은 꽃의 아소카 (無憂樹)를 유래한다.
평생 [ 편집 ]
아쇼카에 묶인 전설 [ 편집 ]
선대의 빈두사라 (한역 음사: 빈두사라)의 아들이었다고 전해진다. 한 전설에서는 빈두사라의 면도사(나피니 Napini)를 하고 있던 던머라는 여자가 챔파왕국 의 바라몬 의 딸이었던 것이 발각되었기 때문에 정비로 되어 빈두사라와 그 여자 사이에 아쇼카와 비타 쇼카라는 아들이 태어났다.
마찬가지로 전설의 역을 나오지 않는 이야기이지만, 아쇼카는 아버지 빈두사라와 불화로, 택시라 에서 반란이 발생했을 때 빈두사라는 군도 무기도 주지 않고 반란 진압으로 향하도록 아쇼카에게 명령했다. 이 상황에 대해 걱정한 가신 중 한 명이 " 왕자여, 군도 무기도 없이 우리는 무엇을 이용해 누구와 싸우는 것일까요 ? " 을 가진다면 군과 무기가 나타날 것 ”이라고 대답했다. 그러자 신들은 대지를 나눠 그 찢어짐에서 군과 무기를 내어 아쇼카에게 주었다. 이를 들었던 택시라의 주민들은 길을 깨끗하게 하고 아쇼카를 환영하며 “ 우리는 빈두사라 폐하에도 아쇼카 왕자에게도 쏘고 있지 않다. 토벌한 것뿐입니다. ”라고 말해 아쇼카는 동지의 사람들의 존경을 얻어 지배권을 얻었다.
한편 스리랑카 의 전설에서 아쇼카는 인도 남서부의 우자인 의 반란 진압을 명령받아 진압에는 성공했지만 부상을 당했다. 그리고 이때 그를 간호한 상인의 딸 데비와 결혼했다.
아쇼카의 왕자 시대는 이런 모호한 전설을 바탕으로 재구축할 수밖에 없지만 그의 즉위 경위 등도 포함해 빈두사라와의 대립이 있었던 것으로 추측된다.
빈두사라가 병에 쓰러지자, 그는 장남 스시마(스리랑카의 전설에서는 수마나)를 후계자로 하도록 유언했다고 한다. 그러나 아쇼카는 갑자기 파타 립트라를 목표로 진군하고, 스시마와 싸워 이를 죽이고 다른 이모 형제들도 죽여 왕좌를 얻었다고 한다.
불교의 전설에서 아쇼카는 99명의 형제를 죽였다. 마찬가지로 불전 의 기록에 따르면, 그는 즉위 한 후에도 즉각적인 의식을 할 수 없으며, 또한 장관들은 자신들의 협력에 의해 아쇼카가 라자 가 될 수 있었다고 생각하고 아쇼카를 경시 했다고 한다. 아쇼카는 장관들이 자신의 명령을 따르지 않는 것에 화를 내고 500명의 장관을 죽였다고 전해진다. 즉위한 뒤에는 그의 다니는 곳은 모두 불에 태워 초목이 하나도 나지 않고 있다고 할 정도의 폭군이었지만, 너무 무잔한 전쟁( 카링가 왕국 정복 )을 반성하고 불교에 깊이 귀의했다 라고 한다.
하지만, 이것은 아마 후세의 불교도들이 아쇼카의 불교 개종을 극적인 것으로 하기 위해 특히 개종 전의 잔학 비도를 써놓은 것으로 생각된다. 아쇼카 시대의 기록에는 그의 형제가 몇 명도 지방 총독의 지위에 있었음이 기록되어 있으며, 적어도 형제의 대부분을 살해했다는 불전의 전설과는 일치하지 않는다. 또한 불교뿐만 아니라 널리 다양한 종교 를 보호한 것으로 알려져 있다.
또 『잡아함경』권 23에는, 아쇼카의 전세의 인연에 대해서 다음과 같은 설화가 있다. 석가불이 아난다를 데리고 왕사성 (라자그리하) 에서 행거하고 있으면, 상성(闍耶=쟈, 도쿠카츠 동자 )과 차성(毘闍耶=비자야, 무승동동자 )의 2명 가 사사에서 놀고 있었다. 두 사람은 석가를 보면 기뻐했고, 도쿠가쓰는 석가에 세사(모래의 떡)를 만들어 공양했고, 무승은 합장했다. 석가는 아난다에게 “이 동자는 내가 멸도하고 100년 후에 화씨성(파타립트라)에서 전륜 성왕 이 될 것이다. 성은 공작, 이름을 아육이라고 하며, 부처님의 법으로 나라를 다스리고, 8만4천의 불탑을 건립해 공양해 중생을 안락하게 할 것”이라고 말했다. 이 예언대로 빈두사라왕의 아들로서 덕승은 무우, 무승은 이우라는 이름으로 태어난 것으로 알려져 있다.
칼링가 전쟁 [ 편집 ]
고고학적으로는 아쇼카의 통치 초기는 거의 알려지지 않았다. 그의 즉위 후 택시라에서 또 반란이 발생했기 때문에 왕자 쿠나라 를 파견해 택시라의 반란을 진압시켰지만, 이 반란 진압에 즈음해 아쇼카의 왕자 시대의 탁실라 반란 진압과 비슷한 설화가 남아 있다. 비문 등에서 그의 통치 8년경( 기원전 260 년경 )에 불교로 개종했다고 추측되지만, 당초는 그렇게 열심이라는 것은 없었다. 그러나, 통치 9년째에 행해진 카링가 전쟁 이 아쇼카의 종교관에 큰 영향을 미치게 된다.
당시 칼링가 국가 는 인도 아대륙의 동쪽 해안에서 세력을 흔든 대국이었고, 이 시대에도 마우리아 아침의 지배에는 옷을 입지 않았다. 원정의 이유는 불분명하지만, 마우리아 군대가 때때로 패주하는 등 격전 끝에 카링가 국가를 정복했다. 이때 15만명의 포로를 얻었지만, 이 중 10만명이 죽어 전쟁에 의해 그 몇 배의 사람들이 죽고, 많은 훌륭한 바라몬 , 샤몬이 죽여 많은 사람들이 거처를 잃었다고 한다 . 아쇼카는 이를 깊이 후회하고 이 지방 주민들에게 특별한 온정을 갖고 통치를 당하도록 칙령을 발했다. 이후 대외 원정에는 소극적이 되어 「법( 달마 )의 정치」의 실현을 목표로 하게 되었다고 한다.
그 자신이나 후세의 '선전'이 섞여 있을 '이야기'이지만, 이 흐름은 어느 정도 고고학적으로 실증할 수 있다.
법 (달마)의 정치 [ 편집 ]
치세 10년경부터 석가 연의 땅을 돌고, 또 스스로의 명령한 「법의 정치」를 선전해, 또 그것이 실행되고 있는지 어떤지를 확인해 돌리는 「법의 순행」을 개시했다. 치세 11년에는 붓다가야 의 보리수를 맡고 있다. 그리고 석가의 입멸 후 세워진 8개의 탑 중 7개에서 불사리 를 꺼내 새로 지은 8만4천의 탑에 분납했다고 전해진다. 이 숫자 자체는 과장이지만, 인도의 불탑 안에 아쇼카 시대에 기원을 가지는 것이 많이 존재하는 것은 사실이다. 또 이러한 통치의 이상을 정한 사냥을 국내 각지에 세운 원기둥 등에 새겼다. 이 비문은 아쇼카 왕 비문 이라고 불리며 현대에도 아프가니스탄 에서 인도 남부의 광대 한 지역에 남아 있습니다. 또한 이 비문은 인더스 문자 를 제외하고 인도에서 가장 오래된 문자 자료이며, 여기에 새겨져 있던 풀라크릿어 의 블러프미 문자 가 1837년에 영국의 제임스 프린셉 에 의해 해독된 것으로 인도의 고대사 연구 는 크게 전진하게 되었다 [1] .
아쇼카는 제3회 불전 결집 을 했다. 또한 법의 선포를 목적으로 한 새로운 직직으로서 법대관(다르마 마하마트라, Dharma-mahāmātra )을 설정하고, 불교의 가르침을 전파하기 위해 헬레니즘 국가나 스리랑카에 사절을 파견했다. 중앙아시아로의 불교의 전파 [2] 나 불교세력의 급속한 확대 [3] 는 이러한 아쇼카의 통치를 요인으로 생각하고 있다. 그 외, 마일스톤 도 아쇼카에 의해 설치되었다.
그의 마애비문 등에서 달마의 내용으로 반복해서 전해지는 것은 불살생(인간에 한정되지 않는다)과 올바른 인간 관계이며, 부모에게 순종하는 것, 예의 바르게 있는 것, 바라몬이나 샤몬을 존경하고 포시를 게을리하지 않는 것, 고위자를 존경하는 것, 노예나 빈민을 올바르게 취급하는 것, 항상 타인의 입장을 배려하는 등이 올라가고 있다.
다만, 통치상의 이유로 변경의 여러 주민에 대해서는 ' 달마 '의 불교색을 전면으로 밀어내지 않도록 배려가 이루어지고 있다. 그는 달마가 모든 종교의 교리와 모순되지 않고 하나의 종교의 교리도 아니라는 것을 칙령으로 표명하고 있으며, 바라몬교 , 자이나교 , 아지비카교 는 불교 와 대등한 위치를 얻고 있었다 . 4] .
이러한 법의 정치가 어느 정도 성과를 거두고 있었는지는 분명하지 않지만, 아쇼카는 만년, 지위를 쫓아 유폐되었다는 전설이 있어, 또 실제로 통세 말기의 비문 등이 발견되지 않고, 정치 혼란이 일어난 일이 추측된다. 원인에 대해서는 제설이 있어 분명하지 않지만, 종교 정책 중시를 위해 재정이 악화되었다는 설이나, 군사의 경시 때문에 외적의 침입에 대응할 수 없게 된 등의 설이 주장되고 있다[ 5] .
티베트 에게 전해지는 전설에서 아쇼카는 택시라에서 몰렸다. 그 시기는 기원전 232년경이었다고 한다. 아쇼카가 죽은 후, 마우리아 아침은 분열하고, 그 왕통과 역사의 복원은 어렵다. 플라나계의 많은 기록 에서는 왕자 쿠나라가 다음의 라자 가 되고 있지만, 불전 등에서는 다른 이름이 나타난다. 다만, 아쇼카의 죽음은 기원전 232년경이며, 마우리아 아침이 슌가 아침 에 의해 탈탈되어 멸망하는 것은 기원전 180년경이다 [5] .
아쇼카의 왕비·친족·가신 [ 편집 ]
아쇼카가 형제의 대부분을 죽였다는 불전의 설화가 사실이 아니라는 것은 그의 남은 비문에 형제가 각지에 총독으로 보내졌다는 것을 나타내는 것이 있는 것으로 알려져 있다. 기록이 전부를 망라하고 있지 않기 때문에 개개의 힘 관계나 완전한 계보는 복원할 수 없지만, 몇몇 인물과 아쇼카의 관계를 읽을 수 있다. 아쇼카에는 많은 왕비와 왕자가 있으며, 그들의 이름이 전설에 남아 있지만, 고고학적으로 이름이 알려진 사람은 적다. 왕비에 대해서는 전설적인 인물이 많다.
- 빈두사라
- 마우리아 아침 제2대 라자 에서 아쇼카의 아버지. 그에 대한 기록은 적다.
- 아산디 미트라
- 아쇼카의 정비.
- 칼바키
- 아쇼카의 왕비. 사기문에 이름이 기록된 몇 안되는 왕비이다.
- 티시야 락시터
- 전설에서는 아쇼카의 전희. 왕자 쿠나라를 싫어하고 계략을 사용하여 그의 눈을 끌어당긴 [6] 때문에 아쇼카에게 처벌당한 [7] 이라는 전설이 있다.
- 데비
- 아쇼카의 왕비. 상인의 딸로 우자인의 반란 때 부상을 입은 아쇼카를 개호한 것으로서 처음으로 아내가 되었다는 전설이 있다.
- 쿠나라
- 아쇼카의 아들. 많은 문학에는 Ashoka의 후계자로 쓰여진다. 왕비(일설에서는 티시야락시타)에 상처를 입었다는 전설이 있다.
- 자라우카
- 아쇼카의 아들. 매우 유력하고 유능한 왕자이며, "지상을 덮은 만족( 그리스인 의 일인가)"를 격퇴해, 갠지스 상류역의 지배에 해당했다. 카슈미르 지방에서 독립했다는 설도 있다.
- 마힌다
- 아쇼카의 아들 또는 동생. 스리랑카에게 불교를 전했다는 전설이 있다. 『마하반사』에는 아쇼카의 아들과 함께 있지만, 현지 에 의하면 아쇼카의 동생이라고 전해진다.
- 산가미터
- Ashoka의 딸. 마힌다의 자매. 전설에 의하면 아누라다프라를 통치하고 있던 티사왕의 요청에 따라 수명의 히오카니와 함께 스리랑카에 파견되어 왕의 비비나 후궁의 여성들을 출가시켜 히오카니 산가를 전했다고 한다.
- 비타쇼카
- 아쇼카의 동모 형제.
- 티사
- 아쇼카의 동모 형제로 동모 중에서는 말의 동생. 아쇼카의 즉위 직후, 최고 고문으로서 부왕( 우파라자 )의 지위에 붙였다. 비타쇼카와 같은 인물이라고도 한다.
- 스시마
- 아쇼카의 이모 형제. 빈두사라에게 아쇼카의 칭찬을 반복했다고 한다. 빈두사라가 병에 쓰러지자 아쇼카와 왕위를 싸워 패사했다.
- 라다구프타
- 아쇼카의 가신. 재상 의 지위에 있어 아쇼카의 왕위 획득에 중요한 역할을 맡았다고 한다. 이 시대의 장관으로서 이름을 아는 몇 안되는 인물.
아쇼카의 불탑 [ 편집 ]
아쇼카의 불탑 , 아쇼카 필라 , 아육왕탑 은 아쇼카가 건립한 것으로 알려진 탑 또는 기둥. 표면에 동부 풀러크릿 으로 비문이 새겨져 있어 불교 역사의 해명에 걸리지 않는 귀중한 자료이다. 탑 외에 바위에 새겨진 비문도 있으며, 이곳은 동부 풀라크릿 외에 서부 풀라크릿, 간다라어 , 그리고 그리스어 와 아람어 의 2개 언어로 기록된 것이 있다.
석가의 탄생지( 룸비니 )는 석주가 발굴된 것으로 확인되었다. 돌기둥에는, 여기가 붓다의 탄생된 땅인 것과 조세를 면제하는 것이 쓰여져 있었다. 이것에 의해, 석가가 전설상의 존재가 아니라 역사상 실재한 것이 인정되었다. 또 돌기둥에는 다양한 문장이 적혀 있지만, 현존하는 불전과 일치하지 않는 것도 많아 불교사상의 변천의 흔적이 인정된다. 또 한역의 불전으로 보살에 해당하는 부분이 석주에서는 불상이 되어 있어 대승의 보살 사상 이 등장하기 이전의 자료로도 주목받고 있다. 아쇼카의 시대는 불교의 역사에서 말하는 「근본 분열」의 시대에 상당하고, 돌기둥에도 분열을 가리키는 아쇼카의 문장이 게재되고 있다 [8] . 내용에서 보면 아쇼카는 상좌부를 지지하고 있었던 것 같다.
델리의 철주 [ 편집 ]
델리의 철주 란 인도의 델리 교외 에 있는 녹슬지 않는 철주 . 기원 415년에 건조된 것이기 때문에, 당연히 아쇼카가 건조한 것은 아니지만, 일반적으로 아쇼카·필러 라고 불리고 있다. 고대에 건조된 철 기둥이 1500년 이상 전혀 녹슬지 않아 오파츠 로 주목을 받았다.
일본어 문헌 [ 편집 ]
- 츠카모토 계상『아쇼카왕』히라히데라 서점 <사라총서 21>, 1973년
- 츠카모토 계상 『아쇼카 왕비문』제3문명사〈레글루스 문고〉, 1976년. 원전역·해설
- 야마자키 모토이치「아쇼카왕 전설의 연구」춘추사 , 1979년. 논고집
- 야마자키 모토이치 『아쇼카왕과 그 시대 인도 고대사의 전개와 아쇼카왕』 춘추사, 1982년
- 정방도『아쇼카 왕전』법장관〈법장선서 9〉, 1982년. 원전역도 수록
- 기무라 닛키 『아쇼카왕과 인도사상』 교육출판센터〈이문선서 26〉, 1985년
각주 [ 편집 ]
- ↑ 「세계의 문자를 즐기는 소사전」p94-95 마치다 카즈히코편 대수관 서점 2011년 11월 15일 초판 제1쇄
- ↑ 「불교사 연구 핸드북」p38 불교사학회편 법랑관 2017년 2월 25일 초판 제1쇄
- ↑ 「불교사 연구 핸드북」p5 불교사학회편 법랑관 2017년 2월 25일 초판 제1쇄
- ↑ “남아시아사”(신판 세계 각국사 7) p70 辛島昇編 야마가와 출판사 2004년 3월 30일
- ↑ a b “남아시아사”(신판 세계 각국사 7) p78 신도 승편 야마가와 출판사 2004년 3월 30일
- ↑ 정방 2000 , pp. 25-27/33.
- ↑ 정방 2000 , pp. 31-32/33.
- ↑ 「불교사 연구 핸드북」p9 불교사학회편 호랑관 2017년 2월 25일 초판 제1쇄
참고 문헌 [ 편집 ]
- 정방도 (2000년). “ 쿠나라 이야기 - 텍스트와 일본어 번역 ” (PDF). 도카이대학 문학부. 2017년 12월 16일 열람. “도카이 대학 기요 74호”( 국립 국회 도서관 창고)
외부 링크 [ 편집 ]
Ashoka
| Ashoka | |
|---|---|
| Chakravartin Magadha-raja Mahasamrat Janapadasthamaviryaprapt Priyadarśin Devanampriya | |
 | |
| 3rd Mauryan Emperor | |
| Reign | c. 268 – c. 232 BCE[3] |
| Coronation | 269 BCE;[3] 2293 years ago |
| Predecessor | Bindusara |
| Successor | Dasharatha |
| Born | c. 304 BCE Pataliputra, Magadha, Maurya Empire (modern Patna, Bihar, India) |
| Died | 232 BCE (aged c. 71 – 72) Pataliputra, Magadha, Maurya Empire |
| Spouses |
|
| Issue |
|
| Dynasty | Maurya |
| Father | Emperor Bindusara Maurya |
| Mother | Empress Subhadrangi or Dharma[note 1] |
| Religion | Buddhism[4][5] |
| Maurya Empire (322–180 BCE) | ||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ||||||||||||||||||||
Ashoka (Sanskrit pronunciation: [ɐˈɕoːkɐ], IAST: Aśoka; c. 304 – 232 BCE), popularly known as Ashoka the Great, was the third Mauryan Emperor of Magadha in the Indian subcontinent during c. 268 to 232 BCE. His empire covered the largest part of the Indian subcontinent, stretching from present-day Afghanistan in the west to present-day Bangladesh in the east, with its capital at Pataliputra. A patron of Buddhism, he is credited with playing an important role in the spread of Buddhism across ancient Asia.
Ashoka's edicts state that during his eighth regnal year (c. 260 BCE), he conquered Kalinga after a brutal war. Ashoka subsequently devoted himself to the propagation of "dhamma" or righteous conduct, the major theme of the edicts. Ashoka's edicts suggest that a few years after the Kalinga War, he was gradually drawn towards Buddhism. The Buddhist legends credit Ashoka with establishing a large number of stupas, patronising the Third Buddhist council, supporting Buddhist missionaries, making generous donations to the sangha.
Ashoka's existence as a historical emperor had almost been forgotten, but since the decipherment in the 19th century of sources written in Brahmi script, Ashoka holds a reputation as one of the greatest Indian emperors. The emblem of the modern Republic of India is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka. Ashoka's wheel, the Ashoka Chakra is adopted at the centre of the National Flag of India.
Sources of information[edit]
Information about Ashoka from his inscriptions; other inscriptions that mention him or are possibly from his reign; and ancient literature, especially Buddhist texts.[6] These sources often contradict each other, although various historians have attempted to correlate their testimony.[7] So, for example, while Ashoka is often attributed with building many hospitals during his time, there is no clear evidence that any hospitals existed in ancient India during the 3rd century BCE or that Ashoka was responsible for commissioning the construction of any.[8]
Inscriptions
Ashoka's inscriptions are the earliest self-representations of imperial power in the Indian subcontinent.[9] However, these inscriptions are focused mainly on the topic of dhamma, and provide little information regarding other aspects of the Maurya state or society.[7] Even on the topic of dhamma, the content of these inscriptions cannot be taken at face value. In the words of American academic John S. Strong, it is sometimes helpful to think of Ashoka's messages as propaganda by a politician whose aim is to present a favourable image of himself and his administration, rather than record historical facts. [10]
A small number of other inscriptions also provide some information about Ashoka.[7] For example, he finds a mention in the 2nd century Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman.[11] An inscription discovered at Sirkap mentions a lost word beginning with "Priy", which is theorised to be Ashoka's title "Priyadarshi", although this is not certain.[12] Some other inscriptions, such as the Sohgaura copper plate inscription, have been tentatively dated to Ashoka's period by some scholars, although others contest this. [13]
Buddhist legends
Much of the information about Ashoka comes from Buddhist legends, which present him as a great, ideal emperor.[14] These legends appear in texts that are not contemporary to Ashoka and were composed by Buddhist authors, who used various stories to illustrate the impact of their faith on Ashoka. This makes it necessary to exercise caution while relying on them for historical information.[15] Among modern scholars, opinions range from downright dismissal of these legends as mythological to acceptance of all historical portions that seem plausible.[16]
The Buddhist legends about Ashoka exist in several languages, including Sanskrit, Pali, Tibetan, Chinese, Burmese, Khmer, Sinhala, Thai, Lao, and Khotanese. All these legends can be traced to two primary traditions:[17]
- the North Indian tradition preserved in the Sanskrit-language texts such as Divyavadana (including its constituent Ashokavadana); and Chinese sources such as A-yü wang chuan and A-yü wang ching.[17]
- the Sri Lankan tradition preserved in Pali-language texts, such as Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Vamsatthapakasini (a commentary on Mahavamsa), Buddhaghosha's commentary on the Vinaya, and Samanta-pasadika.[17][11]
There are several significant differences between the two traditions. For example, the Sri Lankan tradition emphasizes Ashoka's role in convening the Third Buddhist council, and his dispatch of several missionaries to distant regions, including his son Mahinda to Sri Lanka.[17] However, the North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events. It describes other events not found in the Sri Lankan tradition, such as a story about another son named Kunala. [18]
Even while narrating the common stories, the two traditions diverge in several ways. For example, both Ashokavadana and Mahavamsa mention that Ashoka's empress Tishyarakshita had the Bodhi Tree destroyed. In Ashokavadana, the empress manages to have the tree healed after she realises her mistake. In the Mahavamsa, she permanently destroys the tree, but only after a branch of the tree has been transplanted in Sri Lanka.[19] In another story, both the texts describe Ashoka's unsuccessful attempts to collect a relic of Gautama Buddha from Ramagrama. In Ashokavadana, he fails to do so because he cannot match the devotion of the Nāgas who hold the relic; however, in the Mahavamsa, he fails to do so because the Buddha had destined the relic to be enshrined by King Dutthagamani of Sri Lanka. [20] Using such stories, the Mahavamsa glorifies Sri Lanka as the new preserve of Buddhism. [21]
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Other sources
Numismatic, sculptural, and archaeological evidence supplements research on Ashoka.[22] Ashoka's name appears in the lists of Mauryan emperors in the various Puranas. However, these texts do not provide further details about him, as their Brahmanical authors were not patronised by the Mauryans.[23] Other texts, such as the Arthashastra and Indica of Megasthenes, which provide general information about the Maurya period, can also be used to make inferences about Ashoka's reign.[24] However, the Arthashastra is a normative text that focuses on an ideal rather than a historical state, and its dating to the Mauryan period is a subject of debate. The Indica is a lost work, and only parts of it survive in the form of paraphrases in later writings.[7]
The 12th-century text Rajatarangini mentions a Kashmiri king Ashoka of Gonandiya dynasty who built several stupas: some scholars, such as Aurel Stein, have identified this king with the Maurya emperor Ashoka; others, such as Ananda W. P. Guruge dismiss this identification as inaccurate.[25]
Alternative interpretation of the epigraphic evidence
 | This section relies largely or entirely upon a single source. (January 2023) |
For Christopher I. Beckwith, Ashoka, whose name only appears in the Minor Rock Edicts, is not the same as king Piyadasi, or Devanampiya Piyadasi (i.e. "Beloved of the Gods Piyadasi", "Beloved of the Gods" being a fairly widespread title for "King"), who is named as the author of the Major Pillar Edicts and the Major Rock Edicts.[26]
Beckwith suggests that Piyadasi was living in the 3rd century BCE, was probably the son of Chandragupta Maurya known to the Greeks as Amitrochates, and only advocated for piety ("Dharma") in his Major Pillar Edicts and Major Rock Edicts, without ever mentioning Buddhism, the Buddha, or the Samgha (the single notable exception is the 7th Edict of the Major Pillar Edicts which does mention the Samgha, but is a considered a later fake by Beckwith).[26] Also, the geographical spread of his inscription shows that Piyadasi ruled a vast Empire, contiguous with the Seleucid Empire in the West.[26]
On the contrary, for Beckwith, Ashoka was a later king of the 1st–2nd century CE, whose name only appears explicitly in the Minor Rock Edicts and allusively in the Minor Pillar Edicts, and who does mention the Buddha and the Samgha, explicitly promoting Buddhism.[26] The name "Priyadarsi" does occur in two of the minor edicts (Gujarra and Bairat), but Beckwith again considers them as later fabrications.[26] The minor inscriptions cover a very different and much smaller geographical area, clustering in Central India.[26] According to Beckwith, the inscriptions of this later Ashoka were typical of the later forms of "normative Buddhism", which are well attested from inscriptions and Gandhari manuscripts dated to the turn of the millennium, and around the time of the Kushan Empire.[26] The quality of the inscriptions of this Ashoka is significantly lower than the quality of the inscriptions of the earlier Piyadasi.[26]
However, many of Beckwith's methodologies and interpretations concerning early Buddhism, inscriptions, and archaeological sites have been criticized by other scholars, such as Johannes Bronkhorst and Osmund Bopearachchi.
Names and titles[edit]
The name "A-shoka" literally means "without sorrow". According to an Ashokavadana legend, his mother gave him this name because his birth removed her sorrows.[27]
The name Priyadasi is associated with Ashoka in the 3rd–4th century CE Dipavamsa.[28][29] The term literally means "he who regards amiably", or "of gracious mien" (Sanskrit: Priya-darshi). It may have been a regnal name adopted by Ashoka.[30][31] A version of this name is used for Ashoka in Greek-language inscriptions: βασιλεὺς Πιοδασσης ("Basileus Piodassēs").[31]
Ashoka's inscriptions mention his title Devanampiya (Sanskrit: Devanampriya, "Beloved of the Gods"). The identification of Devanampiya and Ashoka as the same person is established by the Maski and Gujarra inscriptions, which use both these terms for the king.[32][33] The title was adopted by other kings, including the contemporary king Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura and Ashoka's descendant Dasharatha Maurya.[34]
Date[edit]
The exact date of Ashoka's birth is not certain, as the extant contemporary Indian texts did not record such details. It is known that he lived in the 3rd century BCE, as his inscriptions mention several contemporary rulers whose dates are known with more certainty, such as Antiochus II Theos, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, Antigonus II Gonatas, Magas of Cyrene, and Alexander (of Epirus or Corinth).[35] Thus, Ashoka must have been born sometime in the late 4th century BCE or early 3rd century BCE (c. 304 BCE),[36] and ascended the throne around 269-268 BCE.[35]
Ancestry[edit]
Ashoka's own inscriptions are fairly detailed but make no mention of his ancestors.[37] Other sources, such as the Puranas and the Mahavamsa state that his father was the Mauryan emperor Bindusara, and his grandfather was Chandragupta – the founder of the Empire.[38] The Ashokavadana also names his father as Bindusara, but traces his ancestry to Buddha's contemporary king Bimbisara, through Ajatashatru, Udayin, Munda, Kakavarnin, Sahalin, Tulakuchi, Mahamandala, Prasenajit, and Nanda.[39] The 16th century Tibetan monk Taranatha, whose account is a distorted version of the earlier traditions,[24] describes Ashoka as the illegitimate son of king Nemita of Champarana from the daughter of a merchant.[40]
Ashokavadana states that Ashoka's mother was the daughter of a Brahmin from Champa, and was prophesied to marry a king. Accordingly, her father took her to Pataliputra, where she was inducted into Bindusara's harem, and ultimately, became his chief empress.[41] The Ashokavadana does not mention her by name,[42] although other legends provide different names for her.[43] For example, the Asokavadanamala calls her Subhadrangi.[44][45] The Vamsatthapakasini or Mahavamsa-tika, a commentary on Mahavamsa, calls her "Dharma" ("Dhamma" in Pali), and states that she belonged to the Moriya Kshatriya clan.[45] A Divyavadana legend calls her Janapada-kalyani;[46] according to scholar Ananda W. P. Guruge, this is not a name, but an epithet.[44]
According to the 2nd-century historian Appian, Chandragupta entered into a marital alliance with the Greek ruler Seleucus I Nicator, which has led to speculation that either Chandragupta or his son Bindusara married a Greek princess. However, there is no evidence that Ashoka's mother or grandmother was Greek, and most historians have dismissed the idea.[47]
As a prince[edit]
Ashoka's own inscriptions do not describe his early life, and much of the information on this topic comes from apocryphal legends written hundreds of years after him.[48] While these legends include obviously fictitious details such as narratives of Ashoka's past lives, they have some plausible historical information about Ashoka's period.[48][46]
According to the Ashokavadana, Bindusara disliked Ashoka because of his rough skin. One day, Bindusara asked the ascetic Pingala-vatsajiva to determine which of his sons was worthy of being his successor. He asked all the princes to assemble at the Garden of the Golden Pavilion on the ascetic's advice. Ashoka was reluctant to go because his father disliked him, but his mother convinced him to do so. When minister Radhagupta saw Ashoka leaving the capital for the Garden, he offered to provide the prince with an imperial elephant for the travel.[49] At the Garden, Pingala-vatsajiva examined the princes and realised that Ashoka would be the next emperor. To avoid annoying Bindusara, the ascetic refused to name the successor. Instead, he said that one who had the best mount, seat, drink, vessel and food would be the next king; each time, Ashoka declared that he met the criterion. Later, he told Ashoka's mother that her son would be the next emperor, and on her advice, left the empire to avoid Bindusara's wrath.[50]
While legends suggest that Bindusara disliked Ashoka's ugly appearance, they also state that Bindusara gave him important responsibilities, such as suppressing a revolt in Takshashila (according to north Indian tradition) and governing Ujjain (according to Sri Lankan tradition). This suggests that Bindusara was impressed by the other qualities of the prince.[51] Another possibility is that he sent Ashoka to distant regions to keep him away from the imperial capital.[52]
Rebellion at Taxila[edit]
According to the Ashokavadana, Bindusara dispatched prince Ashoka to suppress a rebellion in the city of Takshashila[53] (present-day Bhir Mound[54] in Pakistan). This episode is not mentioned in the Sri Lankan tradition, which instead states that Bindusara sent Ashoka to govern Ujjain. Two other Buddhist texts – Ashoka-sutra and Kunala-sutra – state that Bindusara appointed Ashoka as a viceroy in Gandhara (where Takshashila was located), not Ujjain. [51]
The Ashokavadana states that Bindusara provided Ashoka with a fourfold-army (comprising cavalry, elephants, chariots and infantry) but refused to provide any weapons for this army. Ashoka declared that weapons would appear before him if he was worthy of being an emperor, and then, the deities emerged from the earth and provided weapons to the army. When Ashoka reached Takshashila, the citizens welcomed him and told him that their rebellion was only against the evil ministers, not the emperor. Sometime later, Ashoka was similarly welcomed in the Khasa territory and the gods declared that he would go on to conquer the whole earth.[53]
Takshashila was a prosperous and geopolitically influential city, and historical evidence proves that by Ashoka's time, it was well-connected to the Mauryan capital Pataliputra by the Uttarapatha trade route.[55] However, no extant contemporary source mentions the Takshashila rebellion, and none of Ashoka's records states that he ever visited the city.[56] That said, the historicity of the legend about Ashoka's involvement in the Takshashila rebellion may be corroborated by an Aramaic-language inscription discovered at Sirkap near Taxila. The inscription includes a name that begins with the letters "prydr", and most scholars restore it as "Priyadarshi", which was the title of Ashoka.[51] Another evidence of Ashoka's connection to the city may be the name of the Dharmarajika Stupa near Taxila; the name suggests that it was built by Ashoka ("Dharma-raja"). [57]
The story about the deities miraculously bringing weapons to Ashoka may be the text's way of deifying Ashoka; or indicating that Bindusara – who disliked Ashoka – wanted him to fail in Takshashila. [58]
Viceroy of Ujjain[edit]
According to the Mahavamsa, Bindusara appointed Ashoka as the viceroy of present-day Ujjain (Ujjeni),[51] which was an important administrative and commercial centre in the Avanti province of central India.[59] This tradition is corroborated by the Saru Maru inscription discovered in central India; this inscription states that he visited the place as a prince.[60] Ashoka's own rock edict mentions the presence of a prince viceroy at Ujjain during his reign,[61] which further supports the tradition that he himself served as a viceroy at Ujjain.[62]
Pataliputra was connected to Ujjain by multiple routes in Ashoka's time, and on the way, Ashoka entourage may have encamped at Rupnath, where his inscription has been found.[63]
According to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka visited Vidisha, where he fell in love with a beautiful woman on his way to Ujjain. According to the Dipamvamsa and Mahamvamsa, the woman was Devi – the daughter of a merchant. According to the Mahabodhi-vamsa, she was Vidisha-Mahadevi and belonged to the Shakya clan of Gautama Buddha. The Buddhist chroniclers may have fabricated the Shakya connection to connect Ashoka's family to Buddha.[64] The Buddhist texts allude to her being a Buddhist in her later years but do not describe her conversion to Buddhism. Therefore, it is likely that she was already a Buddhist when she met Ashoka.[65]
The Mahavamsa states that Devi gave birth to Ashoka's son Mahinda in Ujjain, and two years later, to a daughter named Sanghamitta.[66] According to the Mahavamsa, Ashoka's son Mahinda was ordained at the age of 20 years, during the sixth year of Ashoka's reign. That means Mahinda must have been 14 years old when Ashoka ascended the throne. Even if Mahinda was born when Ashoka was as young as 20 years old, Ashoka must have ascended the throne at 34 years, which means he must have served as a viceroy for several years.[67]
Ascension to the throne[edit]
Legends suggest that Ashoka was not the crown prince, and his ascension on the throne was disputed. [68]
Ashokavadana states that Bindusara's eldest son Susima once slapped a bald minister on his head in jest. The minister worried that after ascending the throne, Susima may jokingly hurt him with a sword. Therefore, he instigated five hundred ministers to support Ashoka's claim to the throne when the time came, noting that Ashoka was predicted to become a chakravartin (universal ruler).[69] Sometime later, Takshashila rebelled again, and Bindusara dispatched Susima to curb the rebellion. Shortly after, Bindusara fell ill and was expected to die soon. Susima was still in Takshashila, having been unsuccessful in suppressing the rebellion. Bindusara recalled him to the capital and asked Ashoka to march to Takshashila.[70] However, the ministers told him that Ashoka was ill and suggested that he temporarily install Ashoka on the throne until Susmia's return from Takshashila.[69] When Bindusara refused to do so, Ashoka declared that if the throne were rightfully his, the gods would crown him as the next emperor. At that instance, the gods did so, Bindusara died, and Ashoka's authority extended to the entire world, including the Yaksha territory located above the earth and the Naga territory located below the earth.[70] When Susima returned to the capital, Ashoka's newly appointed prime minister Radhagupta tricked him into a pit of charcoal. Susima died a painful death, and his general Bhadrayudha became a Buddhist monk.[71]
The Mahavamsa states that when Bindusara fell sick, Ashoka returned to Pataliputra from Ujjain and gained control of the capital. After his father's death, Ashoka had his eldest brother killed and ascended the throne.[65] The text also states that Ashoka killed ninety-nine of his half-brothers, including Sumana.[61] The Dipavamsa states that he killed a hundred of his brothers and was crowned four years later.[69] The Vamsatthapakasini adds that an Ajivika ascetic had predicted this massacre based on the interpretation of a dream of Ashoka's mother.[74] According to these accounts, only Ashoka's uterine brother Tissa was spared.[75] Other sources name the surviving brother Vitashoka, Vigatashoka, Sudatta (So-ta-to in A-yi-uang-chuan), or Sugatra (Siu-ka-tu-lu in Fen-pie-kung-te-hun).[75]
The figures such as 99 and 100 are exaggerated and seem to be a way of stating that Ashoka killed several of his brothers.[69] Taranatha states that Ashoka, who was an illegitimate son of his predecessor, killed six legitimate princes to ascend the throne.[40] It is possible that Ashoka was not the rightful heir to the throne and killed a brother (or brothers) to acquire the throne. However, the Buddhist sources have exaggerated the story, which attempts to portray him as evil before his conversion to Buddhism. Ashoka's Rock Edict No. 5 mentions officers whose duties include supervising the welfare of "the families of his brothers, sisters, and other relatives". This suggests that more than one of his brothers survived his ascension. However, some scholars oppose this suggestion, arguing that the inscription talks only about the families of his brothers, not the brothers themselves.[75]
Date of ascension[edit]
According to the Sri Lankan texts Mahavamsa and the Dipavamsa, Ashoka ascended the throne 218 years after the death of Gautama Buddha and ruled for 37 years.[76] The date of the Buddha's death is itself a matter of debate,[77] and the North Indian tradition states that Ashoka ruled a hundred years after the Buddha's death, which has led to further debates about the date.[18]
Assuming that the Sri Lankan tradition is correct, and assuming that the Buddha died in 483 BCE – a date proposed by several scholars – Ashoka must have ascended the throne in 265 BCE.[77] The Puranas state that Ashoka's father Bindusara reigned for 25 years, not 28 years as specified in the Sri Lankan tradition.[38] If this is true, Ashoka's ascension can be dated three years earlier, to 268 BCE. Alternatively, if the Sri Lankan tradition is correct, but if we assume that the Buddha died in 486 BCE (a date supported by the Cantonese Dotted Record), Ashoka's ascension can be dated to 268 BCE.[77] The Mahavamsa states that Ashoka consecrated himself as the emperor four years after becoming a sovereign. This interregnum can be explained assuming that he fought a war of succession with other sons of Bindusara during these four years.[78]
The Ashokavadana contains a story about Ashoka's minister Yashas hiding the sun with his hand. Professor P. H. L. Eggermont theorised that this story was a reference to a partial solar eclipse that was seen in northern India on 4 May 249 BCE.[79] According to the Ashokavadana, Ashoka went on a pilgrimage to various Buddhist sites sometime after this eclipse. Ashoka's Rummindei pillar inscription states that he visited Lumbini during his 21st regnal year. Assuming this visit was a part of the pilgrimage described in the text, and assuming that Ashoka visited Lumbini around 1–2 years after the solar eclipse, the ascension date of 268–269 BCE seems more likely.[77][35] However, this theory is not universally accepted. For example, according to John S. Strong, the event described in the Ashokavadana has nothing to do with chronology, and Eggermont's interpretation grossly ignores the literary and religious context of the legend.[80]
Reign before Buddhist influence[edit]
Both Sri Lankan and North Indian traditions assert that Ashoka was a violent person before Buddhism.[81] Taranatha also states that Ashoka was initially called "Kamashoka" because he spent many years in pleasurable pursuits (kama); he was then called "Chandashoka" ("Ashoka the fierce") because he spent some years performing evil deeds; and finally, he came to be known as Dhammashoka ("Ashoka the righteous") after his conversion to Buddhism.[82]
The Ashokavadana also calls him "Chandashoka", and describes several of his cruel acts:[83]
- The ministers who had helped him ascend the throne started treating him with contempt after his ascension. To test their loyalty, Ashoka gave them the absurd order of cutting down every flower-and fruit-bearing tree. When they failed to carry out this order, Ashoka personally cut off the heads of 500 ministers.[83]
- One day, during a stroll at a park, Ashoka and his concubines came across a beautiful Ashoka tree. The sight put him in an amorous mood, but the women did not enjoy caressing his rough skin. Sometime later, when Ashoka fell asleep, the resentful women chopped the flowers and the branches of his namesake tree. After Ashoka woke up, he burnt 500 of his concubines to death as punishment.[84]
- Alarmed by the king's involvement in such massacres, prime minister Radha-Gupta proposed hiring an executioner to carry out future mass killings to leave the king unsullied. Girika, a Magadha village boy who boasted that he could execute the whole of Jambudvipa, was hired for the purpose. He came to be known as Chandagirika ("Girika the fierce"), and on his request, Ashoka built a jail in Pataliputra.[84] Called Ashoka's Hell, the jail looked pleasant from the outside, but inside it, Girika brutally tortured the prisoners.[85]
The 5th-century Chinese traveller Faxian states that Ashoka personally visited the underworld to study torture methods there and then invented his methods. The 7th-century traveller Xuanzang claims to have seen a pillar marking the site of Ashoka's "Hell".[82]
The Mahavamsa also briefly alludes to Ashoka's cruelty, stating that Ashoka was earlier called Chandashoka because of his evil deeds but came to be called Dharmashoka because of his pious acts after his conversion to Buddhism.[86] However, unlike the north Indian tradition, the Sri Lankan texts do not mention any specific evil deeds performed by Ashoka, except his killing of 99 of his brothers.[81]
Such descriptions of Ashoka as an evil person before his conversion to Buddhism appear to be a fabrication of the Buddhist authors,[82] who attempted to present the change that Buddhism brought to him as a miracle.[81] In an attempt to dramatise this change, such legends exaggerate Ashoka's past wickedness and his piousness after the conversion.[87]
Kalinga war and conversion to Buddhism[edit]
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Ashoka's inscriptions mention that he conquered the Kalinga region during his 8th regnal year: the destruction caused during the war made him repent violence, and in the subsequent years, he was drawn towards Buddhism.[89] Edict 13 of the Edicts of Ashoka Rock Inscriptions expresses the great remorse the king felt after observing the destruction of Kalinga:
On the other hand, the Sri Lankan tradition suggests that Ashoka was already a devoted Buddhist by his 8th regnal year, converted to Buddhism during his 4th regnal year, and constructed 84,000 viharas during his 5th–7th regnal years.[89] The Buddhist legends make no mention of the Kalinga campaign.[91]
Based on Sri Lankan tradition, some scholars, such as Eggermont, believe Ashoka converted to Buddhism before the Kalinga war.[92] Critics of this theory argue that if Ashoka were already a Buddhist, he would not have waged the violent Kalinga War. Eggermont explains this anomaly by theorising that Ashoka had his own interpretation of the "Middle Way".[93]
Some earlier writers believed that Ashoka dramatically converted to Buddhism after seeing the suffering caused by the war since his Major Rock Edict 13 states that he became closer to the dhamma after the annexation of Kalinga.[91] However, even if Ashoka converted to Buddhism after the war, epigraphic evidence suggests that his conversion was a gradual process rather than a dramatic event.[91] For example, in a Minor Rock Edict issued during his 13th regnal year (five years after the Kalinga campaign), he states that he had been an upasaka (lay Buddhist) for more than two and a half years, but did not make much progress; in the past year, he was drawn closer to the sangha and became a more ardent follower.[91]
The Kalinga War[edit]
According to Ashoka's Major Rock Edict 13, he conquered Kalinga 8 years after ascending to the throne. The edict states that during his conquest of Kalinga, 100,000 men and animals were killed in action; many times that number "perished"; and 150,000 men and animals were carried away from Kalinga as captives. Ashoka states that the repentance of these sufferings caused him to devote himself to the practice and propagation of dharma.[94] He proclaims that he now considered the slaughter, death and deportation caused during the conquest of a country painful and deplorable; and that he considered the suffering caused to the religious people and householders even more deplorable.[94]
This edict has been inscribed at several places, including Erragudi, Girnar, Kalsi, Maneshra, Shahbazgarhi and Kandahar.[95] However, it is omitted in Ashoka's inscriptions found in the Kalinga region, where the Rock Edicts 13 and 14 have been replaced by two separate edicts that make no mention of Ashoka's remorse. It is possible that Ashoka did not consider it politically appropriate to make such a confession to the people of Kalinga.[96] Another possibility is the Kalinga war and its consequences, as described in Ashoka's rock edicts, are "more imaginary than real". This description is meant to impress those far removed from the scene, thus unable to verify its accuracy.[97]
Ancient sources do not mention any other military activity of Ashoka, although the 16th-century writer Taranatha claims that Ashoka conquered the entire Jambudvipa.[92]
First contact with Buddhism[edit]
Different sources give different accounts of Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism. [82]
According to Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka's father, Bindusara, was a devotee of Brahmanism, and his mother Dharma was a devotee of Ajivikas.[98] The Samantapasadika states that Ashoka followed non-Buddhist sects during the first three years of his reign.[99] The Sri Lankan texts add that Ashoka was not happy with the behaviour of the Brahmins who received his alms daily. His courtiers produced some Ajivika and Nigantha teachers before him, but these also failed to impress him. [100]
The Dipavamsa states that Ashoka invited several non-Buddhist religious leaders to his palace and bestowed great gifts upon them in the hope that they would answer a question posed by the king. The text does not state what the question was but mentions that none of the invitees were able to answer it.[101] One day, Ashoka saw a young Buddhist monk called Nigrodha (or Nyagrodha), who was looking for alms on a road in Pataliputra.[101] He was the king's nephew, although the king was not aware of this:[102] he was a posthumous son of Ashoka's eldest brother Sumana, whom Ashoka had killed during the conflict for the throne.[103] Ashoka was impressed by Nigrodha's tranquil and fearless appearance, and asked him to teach him his faith. In response, Nigrodha offered him a sermon on appamada (earnestness).[101] Impressed by the sermon, Ashoka offered Nigrodha 400,000 silver coins and 8 daily portions of rice.[104] The king became a Buddhist upasaka, and started visiting the Kukkutarama shrine at Pataliputra. At the temple, he met the Buddhist monk Moggaliputta Tissa, and became more devoted to the Buddhist faith.[100] The veracity of this story is not certain.[104] This legend about Ashoka's search for a worthy teacher may be aimed at explaining why Ashoka did not adopt Jainism, another major contemporary faith that advocates non-violence and compassion. The legend suggests that Ashoka was not attracted to Buddhism because he was looking for such a faith, rather, for a competent spiritual teacher.[105] The Sri Lankan tradition adds that during his sixth regnal year, Ashoka's son Mahinda became a Buddhist monk, and his daughter became a Buddhist nun.[106]
A story in Divyavadana attributes Ashoka's conversion to the Buddhist monk Samudra, who was an ex-merchant from Shravasti. According to this account, Samudra was imprisoned in Ashoka's "Hell", but saved himself using his miraculous powers. When Ashoka heard about this, he visited the monk, and was further impressed by a series of miracles performed by the monk. He then became a Buddhist.[107] A story in the Ashokavadana states that Samudra was a merchant's son, and was a 12-year-old boy when he met Ashoka; this account seems to be influenced by the Nigrodha story.[92]
The A-yu-wang-chuan states that a 7-year-old Buddhist converted Ashoka. Another story claims that the young boy ate 500 Brahmanas who were harassing Ashoka for being interested in Buddhism; these Brahmanas later miraculously turned into Buddhist bhikkus at the Kukkutarama monastery, which Ashoka visited.[107]
Several Buddhist establishments existed in various parts of India by the time of Ashoka's ascension. It is not clear which branch of the Buddhist sangha influenced him, but the one at his capital Pataliputra is a good candidate.[108] Another good candidate is the one at Mahabodhi: the Major Rock Edict 8 records his visit to the Bodhi Tree – the place of Buddha's enlightenment at Mahabodhi – after his tenth regnal year, and the minor rock edict issued during his 13th regnal year suggests that he had become a Buddhist around the same time.[108][91]
Reign after Buddhist influence[edit]
Construction of Stupas and Temples[edit]
Both Mahavamsa and Ashokavadana state that Ashoka constructed 84,000 stupas or viharas.[109] According to the Mahavamsa, this activity took place during his fifth–seventh regnal years.[106]
The Ashokavadana states that Ashoka collected seven out of the eight relics of Gautama Buddha, and had their portions kept in 84,000 boxes made of gold, silver, cat's eye, and crystal. He ordered the construction of 84,000 stupas throughout the earth, in towns that had a population of 100,000 or more. He told Elder Yashas, a monk at the Kukkutarama monastery, that he wanted these stupas to be completed on the same day. Yashas stated that he would signal the completion time by eclipsing the sun with his hand. When he did so, the 84,000 stupas were completed at once.[20]
The Mahavamsa states that Ashoka ordered construction of 84,000 viharas (monasteries) rather than the stupas to house the relics.[113] Like Ashokavadana, the Mahavamsa describes Ashoka's collection of the relics, but does not mention this episode in the context of the construction activities.[113] It states that Ashoka decided to construct the 84,000 viharas when Moggaliputta Tissa told him that there were 84,000 sections of the Buddha's Dhamma.[114] Ashoka himself began the construction of the Ashokarama vihara, and ordered subordinate kings to build the other viharas. Ashokarama was completed by the miraculous power of Thera Indagutta, and the news about the completion of the 84,000 viharas arrived from various cities on the same day.[20]
The construction of following stupas and viharas is credited to Ashoka:[citation needed]
- Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India
- Dhamek Stupa, Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India
- Mahabodhi Temple, Bihar, India
- Barabar Caves, Bihar, India
- Nalanda Mahavihara (some portions like Sariputta Stupa), Bihar, India
- Taxila University (some portions like Dharmarajika Stupa and Kunala Stupa), Taxila, Pakistan
- Bhir Mound (reconstructed), Taxila, Pakistan
- Bharhut stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India
- Deorkothar Stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India
- Butkara Stupa, Swat, Pakistan
- Sannati Stupa, Karnataka, India
- Mir Rukun Stupa, Nawabshah, Pakistan
Propagation of Dhamma[edit]
Ashoka's rock edicts suggest that during his eighth–ninth regnal years, he made a pilgrimage to the Bodhi Tree, started propagating dhamma, and performed social welfare activities. The welfare activities included establishment of medical treatment facilities for humans and animals; plantation of medicinal herbs; and digging of wells and plantation of trees along the roads. These activities were conducted in the neighbouring kingdoms, including those of the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, Tamraparni, the Greek kingdom of Antiyoka.[115]
The edicts also state that during his tenth–eleventh regnal years, Ashoka became closer to the Buddhist sangha, and went on a tour of the empire that lasted for at least 256 days.[115]
By his 12th regnal year, Ashoka had started inscribing edicts to propagate dhamma, having ordered his officers (rajjukas and pradesikas) to tour their jurisdictions every five years for inspection and for preaching dhamma. By the next year, he had set up the post of the dharma-mahamatra.[115]
During his 14th regnal year, he commissioned the enlargement of the stupa of Buddha Kanakamuni.[115]
Third Buddhist Council[edit]
The Sri Lankan tradition presents a greater role for Ashoka in the Buddhist community.[17] In this tradition, Ashoka starts feeding monks on a large scale. His lavish patronage to the state patronage leads to many fake monks joining the sangha. The true Buddhist monks refuse to co-operate with these fake monks, and therefore, no uposatha ceremony is held for seven years. The king attempts to eradicate the fake monks, but during this attempt, an over-jealous minister ends up killing some real monks. The king then invites the elder monk Moggaliputta-Tissa, to help him expel non-Buddhists from the monastery founded by him at Pataliputra.[102] 60,000 monks (bhikkhus) convicted of being heretical are de-frocked in the ensuing process.[17] The uposatha ceremony is then held, and Tissa subsequently organises the Third Buddhist council,[116] during the 17th regnal year of Ashoka.[117] Tissa compiles Kathavatthu, a text that reaffirms Theravadin orthodoxy on several points.[116]
The North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events, which has led to doubts about the historicity of the Third Buddhist council.[18]
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Richard Gombrich argues that the non-corroboration of this story by inscriptional evidence cannot be used to dismiss it as completely unhistorical, as several of Ashoka's inscriptions may have been lost.[116] Gombrich also argues that Asohka's inscriptions prove that he was interested in maintaining the "unanimity and purity" of the Sangha.[118] For example, in his Minor Rock Edict 3, Ashoka recommends the members of the Sangha to study certain texts (most of which remain unidentified). Similarly, in an inscription found at Sanchi, Sarnath, and Kosam, Ashoka mandates that the dissident members of the sangha should be expelled, and expresses his desire to the Sangha remain united and flourish.[119][120]
The 8th century Buddhist pilgrim Yijing records another story about Ashoka's involvement in the Buddhist sangha. According to this story, the earlier king Bimbisara, who was a contemporary of the Gautama Buddha, once saw 18 fragments of a cloth and a stick in a dream. The Buddha interpreted the dream to mean that his philosophy would be divided into 18 schools after his death, and predicted that a king called Ashoka would unite these schools over a hundred years later.[74]
Buddhist missions[edit]
In the Sri Lankan tradition, Moggaliputta-Tissa – who is patronised by Ashoka – sends out nine Buddhist missions to spread Buddhism in the "border areas" in c. 250 BCE. This tradition does not credit Ashoka directly with sending these missions. Each mission comprises five monks, and is headed by an elder.[121] To Sri Lanka, he sent his own son Mahinda, accompanied by four other Theras – Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and Bhaddasala.[17] Next, with Moggaliputta-Tissa's help, Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to distant regions such as Kashmir, Gandhara, Himalayas, the land of the Yonas (Greeks), Maharashtra, Suvannabhumi, and Sri Lanka.[17]
The Sri Lankan tradition dates these missions to Ashoka's 18th regnal year, naming the following missionaries:[115]
- Mahinda to Sri Lanka
- Majjhantika to Kashmir and Gandhara
- Mahadeva to Mahisa-mandala (possibly modern Mysore region)
- Rakkhita to Vanavasa
- Dhammarakkhita the Greek to Aparantaka (western India)
- Maha-dhamma-rakkhita to Maharashtra
- Maharakkhita to the Greek country
- Majjhima to the Himalayas
- Soṇa and Uttara to Suvaṇṇabhūmi (possibly Lower Burma and Thailand)
The tradition adds that during his 19th regnal year, Ashoka's daughter Sanghamitta went to Sri Lanka to establish an order of nuns, taking a sapling of the sacred Bodhi Tree with her.[121][117]
The North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events.[18] Ashoka's own inscriptions also appear to omit any mention of these events, recording only one of his activities during this period: in his 19th regnal year, he donated the Khalatika Cave to ascetics to provide them a shelter during the rainy season. Ashoka's Pillar Edicts suggest that during the next year, he made pilgrimage to Lumbini – the place of Buddha's birth, and to the stupa of the Buddha Kanakamuni.[117]
The Rock Edict XIII states that Ashoka's won a "dhamma victory" by sending messengers to five kings and several other kingdoms. Whether these missions correspond to the Buddhist missions recorded in the Buddhist chronicles is debated.[122] Indologist Etienne Lamotte argues that the "dhamma" missionaries mentioned in Ashoka's inscriptions were probably not Buddhist monks, as this "dhamma" was not same as "Buddhism".[123] Moreover, the lists of destinations of the missions and the dates of the missions mentioned in the inscriptions do not tally the ones mentioned in the Buddhist legends.[124]
Other scholars, such as Erich Frauwallner and Richard Gombrich, believe that the missions mentioned in the Sri Lankan tradition are historical.[124] According to these scholars, a part of this story is corroborated by archaeological evidence: the Vinaya Nidana mentions names of five monks, who are said to have gone to the Himalayan region; three of these names have been found inscribed on relic caskets found at Bhilsa (near Vidisha). These caskets have been dated to the early 2nd century BCE, and the inscription states that the monks are of the Himalayan school.[121] The missions may have set out from Vidisha in central India, as the caskets were discovered there, and as Mahinda is said to have stayed there for a month before setting out for Sri Lanka.[125]
According to Gombrich, the mission may have included representatives of other religions, and thus, Lamotte's objection about "dhamma" is not valid. The Buddhist chroniclers may have decided not to mention these non-Buddhists, so as not to sideline Buddhism.[126] Frauwallner and Gombrich also believe that Ashoka was directly responsible for the missions, since only a resourceful ruler could have sponsored such activities. The Sri Lankan chronicles, which belong to the Theravada school, exaggerate the role of the Theravadin monk Moggaliputta-Tissa in order to glorify their sect.[126]
Some historians argue that Buddhism became a major religion because of Ashoka's royal patronage.[127] However, epigraphic evidence suggests that the spread of Buddhism in north-western India and Deccan region was less because of Ashoka's missions, and more because of merchants, traders, landowners and the artisan guilds who supported Buddhist establishments.[128]
Violence after conversion[edit]
According to the Ashokavadana, Ashoka resorted to violence even after converting to Buddhism. For example:[129]
- He slowly tortured Chandagirika to death in the "hell" prison.[129]
- He ordered a massacre of 18,000 heretics for a misdeed of one.[129]
- He launched a pogrom against the Jains, announcing a bounty on the head of any heretic; this resulted in the beheading of his own brother – Vitashoka.[129]
According to the Ashokavadana, a non-Buddhist in Pundravardhana drew a picture showing the Buddha bowing at the feet of the Nirgrantha leader Jnatiputra. The term nirgrantha ("free from bonds") was originally used for a pre-Jaina ascetic order, but later came to be used for Jaina monks.[130] "Jnatiputra" is identified with Mahavira, 24th Tirthankara of Jainism. The legend states that on complaint from a Buddhist devotee, Ashoka issued an order to arrest the non-Buddhist artist, and subsequently, another order to kill all the Ajivikas in Pundravardhana. Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivika sect were executed as a result of this order.[131][132] Sometime later, another Nirgrantha follower in Pataliputra drew a similar picture. Ashoka burnt him and his entire family alive in their house.[132] He also announced an award of one dinara (gold coin) to anyone who brought him the head of a Nirgrantha heretic. According to Ashokavadana, as a result of this order, his own brother was mistaken for a heretic and killed by a cowherd.[131] Ashoka realised his mistake, and withdrew the order.[130]
For several reasons, scholars say, these stories of persecutions of rival sects by Ashoka appear to be clear fabrications arising out of sectarian propaganda.[132][133][134]
Family[edit]
Consorts[edit]
Various sources mention five consorts of Ashoka: Devi (or Vedisa-Mahadevi-Shakyakumari), Asandhimitra, Padmavati, Karuvaki and Tishyarakshita.[136]
Karuvaki is the 2nd chief empress and she is only wife of Ashoka known from his own inscriptions: she is mentioned in an edict inscribed on a pillar at Allahabad. The inscription names her as the mother of prince Tivara, and orders the imperial officers (mahamattas) to record her religious and charitable donations.[78] According to one theory, Tishyarakshita was the regnal name of Kaurvaki.[78]
According to the Mahavamsa, Ashoka's 1st chief empress was Asandhimitta, who died four years before him.[78] It states that she was born as Ashoka's empress because in a previous life, she directed a pratyekabuddha to a honey merchant (who was later reborn as Ashoka).[137] Some later texts also state that she additionally gave the pratyekabuddha a piece of cloth made by her.[138] These texts include the Dasavatthuppakarana, the so-called Cambodian or Extended Maha (possibly from 9th–10th centuries), and the Trai Bhumi Katha (15th century).[138] These texts narrate another story: one day, Ashoka mocked Asandhamitta was enjoying a tasty piece of sugarcane without having earned it through her karma. Asandhamitta replied that all her enjoyments resulted from merit resulting from her own karma. Ashoka then challenged her to prove this by procuring 60,000 robes as an offering for monks.[138] At night, the guardian gods informed her about her past gift to the pratyekabuddha, and next day, she was able to miraculously procure the 60,000 robes. An impressed Ashoka makes her his favourite empress, and even offers to make her a sovereign ruler. Asandhamitta refuses the offer, but still invokes the jealousy of Ashoka's 16,000 other women. Ashoka proves her superiority by having 16,000 identical cakes baked with his imperial seal hidden in only one of them. Each wife is asked to choose a cake, and only Asandhamitta gets the one with the imperial seal.[139] The Trai Bhumi Katha claims that it was Asandhamitta who encouraged her husband to become a Buddhist, and to construct 84,000 stupas and 84,000 viharas.[140]
According to Mahavamsa, after Asandhamitta's death, Tissarakkha became the 1st chief empress.[78] The Ashokavadana does not mention Asandhamitta at all, but does mention Tissarakkha as Tishyarakshita.[141] The Divyavadana mentions another empress called Padmavati, who was the mother of the crown-prince Kunala.[78]
As mentioned above, according to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka fell in love with Devi (or Vidisha-Mahadevi), as a prince in central India.[64] After Ashoka's ascension to the throne, Devi chose to remain at Vidisha than move to the imperial capital Pataliputra. According to the Mahavmsa, Ashoka's chief empress was Asandhamitta, not Devi: the text does not talk of any connection between the two women, so it is unlikely that Asandhamitta was another name for Devi.[142] The Sri Lankan tradition uses the word samvasa to describe the relationship between Ashoka and Devi, which modern scholars variously interpret as sexual relations outside marriage, or co-habitation as a married couple.[143] Those who argue that Ashoka did not marry Devi argue that their theory is corroborated by the fact that Devi did not become Ashoka's chief empress in Pataliputra after his ascension.[62] The Dipavamsa refers to two children of Ashoka and Devi – Mahinda and Sanghamitta.[144]
Sons[edit]
Tivara, the fourth son of Ashoka and 2nd chief Queen Karuvaki, is the only of Ashoka's sons to be mentioned by name in the inscriptions.[78]
According to North Indian tradition, Ashoka had a second son named Kunala.[18] Kunala had a son named Samprati.[78]
The Sri Lankan tradition mentions a son called Mahinda, who was sent to Sri Lanka as a Buddhist missionary; this son is not mentioned at all in the North Indian tradition.[17] The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang states that Mahinda was Ashoka's younger brother (Vitashoka or Vigatashoka) rather than his illegitimate son.[145]
The Divyavadana mentions the crown-prince Kunala alias Dharmavivardhana, who was a second son of Ashoka and empress Padmavati. According to Faxian, Dharmavivardhana was appointed as the governor of Gandhara.[78]
The Rajatarangini mentions Jalauka as a third son of Ashoka.[78]
Daughters[edit]
According to Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka had a daughter named Sanghamitta, who became a Bhikkhunī.[106] A section of historians, such as Romila Thapar, doubt the historicity of Sanghamitta, based on the following points:[146]
- The name "Sanghamitta", which literally means the friend of the Buddhist order (sangha), is unusual, and the story of her going to Ceylon so that the Ceylonese queen could be ordained appears to be an exaggeration.[142]
- The Mahavamsa states that she married Ashoka's nephew Agnibrahma, and the couple had a son named Sumana. The contemporary laws regarding exogamy would have forbidden such a marriage between first cousins.[145]
- According to the Mahavamsa, she was 18 years old when she was ordained as a nun.[142] The narrative suggests that she was married two years earlier, and that her husband as well as her child were ordained. It is unlikely that she would have been allowed to become a nun with such a young child.[145]
Another source mentions that Ashoka had a daughter named Charumati, who married a kshatriya named Devapala.[78]
Brothers[edit]
According to the Ashokavadana, Ashoka had an elder half-brother named Susima.[39]
- According to Sri Lankan tradition, this brother was Tissa, who initially lived a luxurious life, without worrying about the world. To teach him a lesson, Ashoka put him on the throne for a few days, then accused him of being an usurper, and sentenced him to die after seven days. During these seven days, Tissa realised that the Buddhist monks gave up pleasure because they were aware of the eventual death. He then left the palace, and became an arhat.[75]
- The Theragatha commentary calls this brother Vitashoka. According to this legend, one day, Vitashoka saw a grey hair on his head, and realised that he had become old. He then retired to a monastery, and became an arhat.[130]
- Faxian calls the younger brother Mahendra, and states that Ashoka shamed him for his immoral behaviour. The brother than retired to a dark cave, where he meditated, and became an arhat. Ashoka invited him to return to the family, but he preferred to live alone on a hill. So, Ashoka had a hill built for him within Pataliputra.[130]
- The Ashoka-vadana states that Ashoka's brother was mistaken for a non-Buddhist Jain, and killed during a massacre of the Jains ordered by Ashoka.[130]
Imperial extent[edit]
The extent of the territory controlled by Ashoka's predecessors is not certain, but it is possible that the empire of his grandfather Chandragupta extended across northern India from the western coast (Arabian Sea) to the eastern coast (Bay of Bengal), covering nearly two-thirds of the Indian subcontinent. Bindusara and Ashoka seem to have extended the empire southwards.[148] The distribution of Ashoka's inscriptions suggests that his empire included almost the entire Indian subcontinent, except its southernmost parts. The Rock Edicts 2 and 13 suggest that these southernmost parts were controlled by the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Keralaputras, and the Satiyaputras. In the north-west, Ashoka's kingdom extended up to Kandahar, to the east of the Seleucid Empire ruled by Antiochus II.[2] The capital of Ashoka's empire was Pataliputra in the Magadha region.[148]
Religion and philosophy[edit]
Relationship with Buddhism[edit]
The Buddhist legends state that Ashoka converted to Buddhism,[149] although this has been debated by a section of scholars.[150] The Minor Rock Edict 1 leaves no doubt that Ashoka was a follower of Buddhism. In this edict, he calls himself an upasaka (a lay follower of Buddhism) and a sakya (i.e. Buddhist, after Gautama Buddha's title Shakya-Muni).[151] This and several other edicts are evidence of his Buddhist affiliation:[152]
- In his Minor Rock Edict 1, Ashoka adds that he did not make much progress for a year after becoming an upasaka, but then, he "went to" the Sangha, and made more progress. It is not certain what "going to" the Sangha means – the Buddhist tradition that he lived with monks may be an exaggeration, but it clearly means that Ashoka was drawn closer to Buddhism.[153]
- In his Minor Rock Edict 3, he calls himself an upasaka, and records his faith in the Buddha and the Sangha.[154][155]
- In the Major Rock Edict 8, he records his visit to Sambodhi (the sacred Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya), ten years after his coronation.[155]
- In the Lumbini (Rumminidei) inscription, he records his visit to the Buddha's birthplace, and declares his reverence for the Buddha and the sangha.[80]
- In the Nigalisagar inscription, he records his doubling in size of a stupa dedicated to a former Buddha, and his visit to the site for worship.[119]
- Some of his inscriptions reflect his interest in maintaining the Buddhist sangha.[119]
- The Saru Maru inscription states that Ashoka dispatched the message while travelling to Upunita-vihara in Manema-desha. Although the identity of the destination is not certain, it was obviously a Buddhist monastery (vihara).[156]
Other religions[edit]
A legend in the Buddhist text Vamsatthapakasini states that an Ajivika ascetic invited to interpret a dream of Ashoka's mother had predicted that he would patronise Buddhism and destroy 96 heretical sects.[74] However, such assertions are directly contradicted by Ashoka's own inscriptions. Ashoka's edicts, such as the Rock Edicts 6, 7, and 12, emphasise tolerance of all sects.[157] Similarly, in his Rock Edict 12, Ashoka honours people of all faiths.[158] In his inscriptions, Ashoka dedicates caves to non-Buddhist ascetics, and repeatedly states that both Brahmins and shramanas deserved respect. He also tells people "not to denigrate other sects, but to inform themselves about them".[153]
In fact, there is no evidence that Buddhism was a state religion under Ashoka.[159] None of Ashoka's extant edicts record his direct donations to the Buddhists. One inscription records donations by his Queen Karuvaki, while the emperor is known to have donated the Barabar Caves to the Ajivikas.[160] There are some indirect references to his donations to Buddhists. For example, the Nigalisagar Pillar inscription records his enlargement of the Konakamana stupa.[161] Similarly, the Lumbini (Rumminidei) inscription states that he exempted the village of Buddha's birth from the land tax, and reduced the revenue tax to one-eighth.[162]
Ashoka appointed the dhamma-mahamatta officers, whose duties included the welfare of various religious sects, including the Buddhist sangha, Brahmins, Ajivikas, and Nirgranthas. The Rock Edicts 8 and 12, and the Pillar Edict 7, mandate donations to all religious sects.[163]
Ashoka's Minor Rock Edict 1 contains the phrase "amissā devā". According to one interpretation, the term "amissā" derives from the word "amṛṣa" ("false"), and thus, the phrase is a reference to Ashoka's belief in "true" and "false" gods. However, it is more likely that the term derives from the word "amiśra" ("not mingled"), and the phrase refers to celestial beings who did not mingle with humans. The inscription claims that the righteousness generated by adoption of dhamma by the humans attracted even the celestial gods who did not mingle with humans.[164]
Dharma[edit]
Ashoka's various inscriptions suggest that he devoted himself to the propagation of "Dharma" (Pali: Dhamma), a term that refers to the teachings of Gautama Buddha in the Buddhist circles.[165] However, Ashoka's own inscriptions do not mention Buddhist doctrines such as the Four Noble Truths or Nirvana.[80] The word "Dharma" has various connotations in the Indian religions, and can be generally translated as "law, duty, or righteousness".[165] In the Kandahar inscriptions of Ashoka, the word "Dharma" has been translated as eusebeia (Greek) and qsyt (Aramaic), which further suggests that his "Dharma" meant something more generic than Buddhism.[150]
The inscriptions suggest that for Ashoka, Dharma meant "a moral polity of active social concern, religious tolerance, ecological awareness, the observance of common ethical precepts, and the renunciation of war."[165] For example:
- Abolition of the death penalty (Pillar Edict IV)[153]
- Plantation of banyan trees and mango groves, and construction of resthouses and wells, every 800 metres (1⁄2 mile) along the roads. (Pillar Edict 7).[158]
- Restriction on killing of animals in the royal kitchen (Rock Edict 1); [158] the number of animals killed was limited to two peacocks and a deer daily, and in future, even these animals were not to be killed.[153]
- Provision of medical facilities for humans and animals (Rock Edict 2).[158]
- Encouragement of obedience to parents, "generosity toward priests and ascetics, and frugality in spending" (Rock Edict 3).[158]
- He "commissions officers to work for the welfare and happiness of the poor and aged" (Rock Edict 5)[158]
- Promotion of "the welfare of all beings so as to pay off his debt to living creatures and to work for their happiness in this world and the next." (Rock Edict 6)[158]
Modern scholars have variously understood this dhamma as a Buddhist lay ethic, a set of politico-moral ideas, a "sort of universal religion", or as an Ashokan innovation. On the other hand, it has also been interpreted as an essentially political ideology that sought to knit together a vast and diverse empire.[9]
Ashoka instituted a new category of officers called the dhamma-mahamattas, who were tasked with the welfare of the aged, the infirm, the women and children, and various religious sects. They were also sent on diplomatic missions to the Hellenistic kingdoms of west Asia, in order to propagate the dhamma.[163]
Historically, the image of Ashoka in the global Buddhist circles was based on legends (such as those mentioned in the Ashokavadana) rather than his rock edicts. This was because the Brahmi script in which these edicts were written was forgotten soon and remained undeciphered until its study by James Prinsep in the 19th century.[166] The writings of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims such as Faxian and Xuanzang suggest that Ashoka's inscriptions mark the important sites associated with Gautama Buddha. These writers attribute Buddhism-related content to Ashoka's edicts, but this content does not match with the actual text of the inscriptions as determined by modern scholars after the decipherment of the Brahmi script. It is likely that the script was forgotten by the time of Faxian, who probably relied on local guides; these guides may have made up some Buddhism-related interpretations to gratify him, or may have themselves relied on faulty translations based on oral traditions. Xuanzang may have encountered a similar situation, or may have taken the supposed content of the inscriptions from Faxian's writings.[167] This theory is corroborated by the fact that some Brahmin scholars are known to have similarly come up with a fanciful interpretation of Ashoka pillar inscriptions, when requested to decipher them by the 14th century Muslim Tughlaq emperor Firuz Shah Tughlaq. According to Shams-i Siraj's Tarikh-i Firoz Shahi, after the king had these pillar transported from Topra and Mirat to Delhi as war trophies, these Brahmins told him that the inscriptions prophesied that nobody would be able to remove the pillars except a king named Firuz. Moreover, by this time, there were local traditions that attributed the erection of these pillars to the legendary hero Bhima.[168]
According to scholars such as Richard Gombrich, Ashoka's dharma shows Buddhist influence. For example, the Kalinga Separate Edict I seems to be inspired by Buddha's Advice to Sigala and his other sermons.[153]
Animal welfare[edit]
Ashoka's rock edicts declare that injuring living things is not good, and no animal should be slaughtered for sacrifice.[169] However, he did not prohibit common cattle slaughter or beef eating.[170]
He imposed a ban on killing of "all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible", and of specific animal species including several birds, certain types of fish and bulls among others. He also banned killing of female goats, sheep and pigs that were nursing their young; as well as their young up to the age of six months. He also banned killing of all fish and castration of animals during certain periods such as Chaturmasa and Uposatha.[171][172]
Ashoka also abolished the imperial hunting of animals and restricted the slaying of animals for food in the imperial residence.[173] Because he banned hunting, created many veterinary clinics and eliminated meat eating on many holidays, the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka has been described as "one of the very few instances in world history of a government treating its animals as citizens who are as deserving of its protection as the human residents".[174]
Foreign relations[edit]
It is well known that Ashoka sent dütas or emissaries to convey messages or letters, written or oral (rather both), to various people. The VIth Rock Edict about "oral orders" reveals this. It was later confirmed that it was not unusual to add oral messages to written ones, and the content of Ashoka's messages can be inferred likewise from the XIIIth Rock Edict: They were meant to spread his dhammavijaya, which he considered the highest victory and which he wished to propagate everywhere (including far beyond India). There is obvious and undeniable trace of cultural contact through the adoption of the Kharosthi script, and the idea of installing inscriptions might have travelled with this script, as Achaemenid influence is seen in some of the formulations used by Ashoka in his inscriptions. This indicates to us that Ashoka was indeed in contact with other cultures, and was an active part in mingling and spreading new cultural ideas beyond his own immediate walls.[177]
Hellenistic world[edit]
In his rock edicts, Ashoka states that he had encouraged the transmission of Buddhism to the Hellenistic kingdoms to the west and that the Greeks in his dominion were converts to Buddhism and recipients of his envoys:
It is possible, but not certain, that Ashoka received letters from Greek rulers and was acquainted with the Hellenistic royal orders in the same way as he perhaps knew of the inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings, given the presence of ambassadors of Hellenistic kings in India (as well as the dütas sent by Ashoka himself).[177] Dionysius is reported to have been such a Greek ambassador at the court of Ashoka, sent by Ptolemy II Philadelphus,[179] who himself is mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka as a recipient of the Buddhist proselytism of Ashoka. Some Hellenistic philosophers, such as Hegesias of Cyrene, who probably lived under the rule of King Magas, one of the supposed recipients of Buddhist emissaries from Asoka, are sometimes thought to have been influenced by Buddhist teachings.[180]
The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek (Yona) Buddhist monks, active in spreading Buddhism (the Mahavamsa, XII).[181]
Some Greeks (Yavana) may have played an administrative role in the territories ruled by Ashoka. The Girnar inscription of Rudradaman records that during the rule of Ashoka, a Yavana Governor was in charge in the area of Girnar, Gujarat, mentioning his role in the construction of a water reservoir.[182]
It is thought that Ashoka's palace at Patna was modelled after the Achaemenid palace of Persepolis.[183]
Legends about past lives[edit]
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Buddhist legends mention stories about Ashoka's past lives. According to a Mahavamsa story, Ashoka, Nigrodha and Devnampiya Tissa were brothers in a previous life. In that life, a pratyekabuddha was looking for honey to cure another, sick pratyekabuddha. A woman directed him to a honey shop owned by the three brothers. Ashoka generously donated honey to the pratyekabuddha, and wished to become the sovereign ruler of Jambudvipa for this act of merit.[184] The woman wished to become his queen, and was reborn as Ashoka's wife Asandhamitta.[137] Later Pali texts credit her with an additional act of merit: she gifted the pratyekabuddha a piece of cloth made by her. These texts include the Dasavatthuppakarana, the so-called Cambodian or Extended Mahavamsa (possibly from 9th–10th centuries), and the Trai Bhumi Katha (15th century).[138]
According to an Ashokavadana story, Ashoka was born as Jaya in a prominent family of Rajagriha. When he was a little boy, he gave the Gautama Buddha dirt imagining it to be food. The Buddha approved of the donation, and Jaya declared that he would become a king by this act of merit. The text also state that Jaya's companion Vijaya was reborn as Ashoka's prime-minister Radhagupta.[185] In the later life, the Buddhist monk Upagupta tells Ashoka that his rough skin was caused by the impure gift of dirt in the previous life.[129] Some later texts repeat this story, without mentioning the negative implications of gifting dirt; these texts include Kumaralata's Kalpana-manditika, Aryashura's Jataka-mala, and the Maha-karma-vibhaga. The Chinese writer Pao Ch'eng's Shih chia ju lai ying hua lu asserts that an insignificant act like gifting dirt could not have been meritorious enough to cause Ashoka's future greatness. Instead, the text claims that in another past life, Ashoka commissioned a large number of Buddha statues as a king, and this act of merit caused him to become a great emperor in the next life.[186]
The 14th century Pali-language fairy tale Dasavatthuppakarana (possibly from c. 14th century) combines the stories about the merchant's gift of honey, and the boy's gift of dirt. It narrates a slightly different version of the Mahavamsa story, stating that it took place before the birth of the Gautama Buddha. It then states that the merchant was reborn as the boy who gifted dirt to the Buddha; however, in this case, the Buddha his attendant to Ānanda to create plaster from the dirt, which is used repair cracks in the monastery walls.[187]
Last years[edit]
Tissarakkha as the empress[edit]
Ashoka's last dated inscription - the Pillar Edict 4 is from his 26th regnal year.[117] The only source of information about Ashoka's later years are the Buddhist legends. The Sri Lankan tradition states that Ashoka's empress Asandhamitta died during his 29th regnal year, and in his 32nd regnal year, his wife Tissarakkha was given the title of empress.[117]
Both Mahavamsa and Ashokavadana state that Ashoka extended favours and attention to the Bodhi Tree, and a jealous Tissarakkha mistook "Bodhi" to be a mistress of Ashoka. She then used black magic to make the tree wither.[188] According to the Ashokavadana, she hired a sorceress to do the job, and when Ashoka explained that "Bodhi" was the name of a tree, she had the sorceress heal the tree.[189] According to the Mahavamsa, she completely destroyed the tree,[190] during Ashoka's 34th regnal year.[117]
The Ashokavadana states that Tissarakkha (called "Tishyarakshita" here) made sexual advances towards Ashoka's son Kunala, but Kunala rejected her. Subsequently, Ashoka granted Tissarakkha emperorship for seven days, and during this period, she tortured and blinded Kunala.[141] Ashoka then threatened to "tear out her eyes, rip open her body with sharp rakes, impale her alive on a spit, cut off her nose with a saw, cut out her tongue with a razor." Kunala regained his eyesight miraculously, and pleaded for mercy for the empress, but Ashoka had her executed anyway.[188] Kshemendra's Avadana-kalpa-lata also narrates this legend, but seeks to improve Ashoka's image by stating that he forgave the empress after Kunala regained his eyesight.[191]
Death[edit]
According to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka died during his 37th regnal year,[117] which suggests that he died around 232 BCE.[192]
According to the Ashokavadana, the emperor fell severely ill during his last days. He started using state funds to make donations to the Buddhist sangha, prompting his ministers to deny him access to the state treasury. Ashoka then started donating his personal possessions, but was similarly restricted from doing so. On his deathbed, his only possession was the half of a myrobalan fruit, which he offered to the sangha as his final donation.[193] Such legends encourage generous donations to the sangha and highlight the role of the kingship in supporting the Buddhist faith.[46]
Legend states that during his cremation, his body burned for seven days and nights.[194]
Legacy[edit]
During his reign, the Maurya Empire became one of the biggest empires in the world in terms of area, economy, and military. The achievements in the fields of science and education made the Maurya period the Golden Age of India.[citation needed]
Architecture[edit]
Besides the various stupas attributed to Ashoka, the pillars erected by him survive at various places in the Indian subcontinent.
Ashoka is often credited with the beginning of stone architecture in India, possibly following the introduction of stone-building techniques by the Greeks after Alexander the Great.[195] Before Ashoka's time, buildings were probably built in non-permanent material, such as wood, bamboo or thatch.[195][196] Ashoka may have rebuilt his palace in Pataliputra by replacing wooden material by stone,[197] and may also have used the help of foreign craftmen.[198] Ashoka also innovated by using the permanent qualities of stone for his written edicts, as well as his pillars with Buddhist symbolism.
Symbols[edit]
Ashokan capitals were highly realistic and used a characteristic polished finish, Mauryan polish, giving a shiny appearance to the stone surface.[199] Lion Capital of Ashoka, the capital of one of the pillars erected by Ashoka features a carving of a spoked wheel, known as the Ashoka Chakra. This wheel represents the wheel of Dhamma set in motion by the Gautama Buddha, and appears on the flag of modern India. This capital also features sculptures of lions, which appear on the seal of India.[148]
Inscriptions[edit]
The edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, issued during his reign.[199] These inscriptions are dispersed throughout modern-day Pakistan and India, and represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history, offering more information about Ashoka's proselytism, moral precepts, religious precepts, and his notions of social and animal welfare.[201]
Before Ashoka, the royal communications appear to have been written on perishable materials such as palm leaves, birch barks, cotton cloth, and possibly wooden boards. While Ashoka's administration would have continued to use these materials, Ashoka also had his messages inscribed on rock edicts.[202] Ashoka probably got the idea of putting up these inscriptions from the neighbouring Achaemenid empire.[153] It is likely that Ashoka's messages were also inscribed on more perishable materials, such as wood, and sent to various parts of the empire. None of these records survive now.[12]
Scholars are still attempting to analyse both the expressed and implied political ideas of the Edicts (particularly in regard to imperial vision), and make inferences pertaining to how that vision was grappling with problems and political realities of a "virtually subcontinental, and culturally and economically highly variegated, 3rd century BCE Indian empire.[7] Nonetheless, it remains clear that Ashoka's Inscriptions represent the earliest corpus of royal inscriptions in the Indian subcontinent, and therefore prove to be a very important innovation in royal practices."[201]
Most of Ashoka's inscriptions are written in a mixture of various Prakrit dialects, in the Brahmi script.[203]
Several of Ashoka's inscriptions appear to have been set up near towns, on important routes, and at places of religious significance.[204] Many of the inscriptions have been discovered in hills, rock shelters, and places of local significance.[205] Various theories have been put forward about why Ashoka or his officials chose such places, including that they were centres of megalithic cultures,[206] were regarded as sacred spots in Ashoka's time, or that their physical grandeur may be symbolic of spiritual dominance.[207] Ashoka's inscriptions have not been found at major cities of the Maurya empire, such as Pataliputra, Vidisha, Ujjayini, and Taxila. [205] It is possible that many of these inscriptions are lost; the 7th century Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang refers to some of Ashoka's pillar edicts, which have not been discovered by modern researchers.[204]
It appears that Ashoka dispatched every message to his provincial governors, who in turn, relayed it to various officials in their territory.[208] For example, the Minor Rock Edict 1 appears in several versions at multiple places: all the versions state that Ashoka issued the proclamation while on a tour, having spent 256 days on tour. The number 256 indicates that the message was dispatched simultaneously to various places.[209] Three versions of a message, found at edicts in the neighbouring places in Karnataka (Brahmagiri, Siddapura, and Jatinga-Rameshwara), were sent from the southern province's capital Suvarnagiri to various places. All three versions contain the same message, preceded by an initial greeting from the arya-putra (presumably Ashoka's son and the provincial governor) and the mahamatras (officials) in Suvarnagiri.[208]
Coinage[edit]
The caduceus appears as a symbol of the punch-marked coins of the Maurya Empire in India, in the 3rd–2nd century BCE. Numismatic research suggests that this symbol was the symbol of Emperor Ashoka, his personal "Mudra".[210] This symbol was not used on the pre-Mauryan punch-marked coins, but only on coins of the Maurya period, together with the three arched-hill symbol, the "peacock on the hill", the triskelis and the Taxila mark.[211]
![A punch-marked coin attributed to Ashoka[212]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:India_Mauryan_emperor_Ashoka_Punch-marked_Coin.jpg)
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Modern scholarship[edit]
Rediscovery[edit]
Ashoka had almost been forgotten, but in the 19th century James Prinsep contributed in the revelation of historical sources. After deciphering the Brahmi script, Prinsep had originally identified the "Priyadasi" of the inscriptions he found with the King of Ceylon Devanampiya Tissa. However, in 1837, George Turnour discovered an important Sri Lankan manuscript (Dipavamsa, or "Island Chronicle" ) associating Piyadasi with Ashoka:
Since then, the association of "Devanampriya Priyadarsin" with Ashoka was confirmed through various inscriptions, and especially confirmed in the Minor Rock Edict inscription discovered in Maski, directly associating Ashoka with his regnal title Devanampriya ("Beloved-of-the-Gods"):[213][214]
Another important historian was British archaeologist John Hubert Marshall, who was director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India. His main interests were Sanchi and Sarnath, in addition to Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Sir Alexander Cunningham, a British archaeologist and army engineer, and often known as the father of the Archaeological Survey of India, unveiled heritage sites like the Bharhut Stupa, Sarnath, Sanchi, and the Mahabodhi Temple. Mortimer Wheeler, a British archaeologist, also exposed Ashokan historical sources, especially the Taxila.[citation needed]
Perceptions and historiography[edit]
The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, as well as the interpretations of his Edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion from the Vedic religion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic institution. Some scholars have tended to question this assessment. Romila Thappar writes about Ashoka that "We need to see him both as a statesman in the context of inheriting and sustaining an empire in a particular historical period, and as a person with a strong commitment to changing society through what might be called the propagation of social ethics."[216] The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources are the Ashokan Edicts, and these do not explicitly state that Ashoka was a Buddhist. In his edicts, Ashoka expresses support for all the major religions of his time: Buddhism, Brahmanism, Jainism, and Ajivikaism, and his edicts addressed to the population at large (there are some addressed specifically to Buddhists; this is not the case for the other religions) generally focus on moral themes members of all the religions would accept. For example, Amartya Sen writes, "The Indian Emperor Ashoka in the third century BCE presented many political inscriptions in favor of tolerance and individual freedom, both as a part of state policy and in the relation of different people to each other".[217]
However, the edicts alone strongly indicate that he was a Buddhist. In one edict he belittles rituals, and he banned Vedic animal sacrifices; these strongly suggest that he at least did not look to the Vedic tradition for guidance. Furthermore, many edicts are expressed to Buddhists alone; in one, Ashoka declares himself to be an "upasaka", and in another he demonstrates a close familiarity with Buddhist texts. He erected rock pillars at Buddhist holy sites, but did not do so for the sites of other religions. He also used the word "dhamma" to refer to qualities of the heart that underlie moral action; this was an exclusively Buddhist use of the word. However, he used the word more in the spirit than as a strict code of conduct. Romila Thappar writes, "His dhamma did not derive from divine inspiration, even if its observance promised heaven. It was more in keeping with the ethic conditioned by the logic of given situations. His logic of Dhamma was intended to influence the conduct of categories of people, in relation to each other. Especially where they involved unequal relationships."[216] Finally, he promotes ideals that correspond to the first three steps of the Buddha's graduated discourse.[218]
Much of the knowledge about Ashoka comes from the several inscriptions that he had carved on pillars and rocks throughout the empire. All his inscriptions present him as compassionate and loving. In the Kalinga rock edits, he addresses his people as his "children" and mentions that as a father he desires their good.[219]
Impact of pacifism[edit]
After Ashoka's death, the Maurya dynasty declined rapidly. The various Puranas provide different details about Ashoka's successors, but all agree that they had relatively short reigns. The empire seems to have weakened, fragmented, and suffered an invasion from the Bactrian Greeks.[135]
Some historians, such as H. C. Raychaudhuri, have argued that Ashoka's pacifism undermined the "military backbone" of the Maurya empire. Others, such as Romila Thapar, have suggested that the extent and impact of his pacifism have been "grossly exaggerated".[220]
In art, film and literature[edit]
- Ashoka the Great is a fictional biography of the emperor, which was originally written in Dutch in the form of a trilogy by Wytze Keuning in 1937–1947.
- Jaishankar Prasad composed Ashoka ki Chinta (Ashoka's Anxiety), a poem that portrays Ashoka's feelings during the war on Kalinga.
- Ashoka, a 1922 Indian silent historical film about the emperor produced by Madan Theatres.[221]
- The Nine Unknown, a 1923 novel by Talbot Mundy about the "Nine Unknown Men", a fictional secret society founded by Ashoka.
- Samrat Ashok, a 1928 Indian silent film by Bhagwati Prasad Mishra.[221]
- Ashok Kumar is a 1941 Indian Tamil-language film directed by Raja Chandrasekhar. The film stars V. Nagayya as Ashoka.
- Samrat Ashok is a 1947 Indian Hindi-language film by K.B. Lall.[222]
- Uttar-Priyadarshi (The Final Beatitude), a verse-play written by poet Agyeya depicting his redemption, was adapted to stage in 1996 by theatre director, Ratan Thiyam and has since been performed in many parts of the world.[223][224]
- In 1973, Amar Chitra Katha released a graphic novel based on the life of Ashoka.
- In Piers Anthony's series of space opera novels, the main character mentions Ashoka as a model for administrators to strive for.
- Samrat Ashok is a 1992 Indian Telugu-language film about the emperor by N. T. Rama Rao with Rao also playing the titular role.[222]
- Aśoka is a 2001 epic Indian historical drama film directed and co-written by Santosh Sivan. The film stars Shah Rukh Khan as Ashoka.
- In 2002, Mason Jennings released the song "Emperor Ashoka" on his Living in the Moment EP. It is based on the life of Ashoka.
- In 2013, Christopher C. Doyle released his debut novel, The Mahabharata Secret, in which he wrote about Ashoka hiding a dangerous secret for the well-being of India.
- 2014's The Emperor's Riddles, a fiction mystery thriller novel by Satyarth Nayak, traces the evolution of Ashoka and his esoteric legend of the Nine Unknown Men.
- In 2015, Chakravartin Ashoka Samrat, a television serial by Ashok Banker, based on the life of Ashoka, began airing on Colors TV where Siddharth Nigam and Mohit Raina played the role of Ashoka.
- Bharatvarsh is an Indian television historical documentary series, hosted by actor-director Anupam Kher on Hindi news channel ABP News. The series stars Aham Sharma as Ashoka.[225]
- In 2024, Pracchand Ashok, a television serial by Ekta Kapoor, based on the love life of the Ashoka, began airing on Colors TV where Adnan Khan played the role of Ashoka.[226]
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^ The North Indian sources indicate Subhadrangi as the name of Ashoka's mother, while the Sri Lankan sources mention her as Dharma
References[edit]
- ^ Lahiri 2015, pp. 295–296.
- ^ a b c d e f g Singh 2017, p. 162.
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- ^ Lahiri 2015, p. 219.
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- ^ a b c d Thapar 1961, p. 29.
- ^ a b Lahiri 2015, p. 105.
- ^ a b Lahiri 2015, p. 106.
- ^ Lahiri 2015, pp. 106–107.
- ^ Lahiri 2015, p. 107.
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- ^ a b Guruge, Unresolved 1995, pp. 49–50.
- ^ Smith, Vincent (1920). . Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 185 – via Wikisource.
- ^ a b c d e Thapar 1995, p. 18.
- ^ a b c Thapar 1961, p. 36.
- ^ Thapar 1961, p. 33.
- ^ a b Guruge, Unresolved 1995, p. 38.
- ^ Guruge, Unresolved 1995, p. 37.
- ^ Thapar 1995, pp. 30–31.
- ^ Guruge, Unresolved 1995, p. 56.
- ^ Guruge, Unresolved 1995, p. 42.
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- ^ a b Gombrich 1995, p. 7.
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- ^ a b c Guruge, Unresolved 1995, p. 49.
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- ^ Strong 1995, pp. 154–155.
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- ^ a b c Gombrich 1995, p. 10.
- ^ Gombrich 1995, p. 6.
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- ^ a b Gombrich 1995, p. 11.
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- ^ "The Edicts of King Asoka". Translated by Dhammika, Ven. S. Buddhist Publication Society. 1994. Archived from the original on 10 May 2016.
- ^ D.R. Bhandarkar, R. G. Bhandarkar (2000). Asoka. Asian Educational Services. pp. 314–315. ISBN 9788120613331. Archived from the original on 26 April 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
- ^ Gerald Irving A. Dare Draper; Michael A. Meyer; H. McCoubrey (1998). Reflections on Law and Armed Conflicts: The Selected Works on the Laws of War by the Late Professor Colonel G.I.A.D. Draper, Obe. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 44. ISBN 978-90-411-0557-8. Archived from the original on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 30 October 2012.
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- ^ Thomas Mc Evilly "The shape of ancient thought", Allworth Press, New York, 2002, p.368
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- ^ Adnan Khan and Mallika Singh to play Samrat Ashok & Kaurawkee in Ekta Kapoor's new historical drama series 'Pracchand Ashok'
Bibliography[edit]
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Further reading[edit]
- Harry Falk (2006). Aśokan Sites and Artefacts: A Source-book with Bibliography. Von Zabern. ISBN 978-3-8053-3712-0.
- Olivelle, Patrick (2024). Ashoka: Portrait of a Philosopher King. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-27490-5.
- Patrick Olivelle; Janice Leoshko; Himanshu Prabha Ray (2012). Reimagining Asoka: Memory and History. Oxford University Press India. ISBN 978-0-19-807800-5.
- E. Hultzsch (1925). Inscriptions of Asoka: New Edition. Government of India.
- Rongxi, Li (1993). The Biographical Scripture of King Aśoka: Translated from the Chinese of Saṃghapāla (PDF). Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. ISBN 978-0-9625618-4-9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
- Nikam, N. A.; McKeon, Richard (1959). The Edicts of Aśoka. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- James Merry MacPhail (1918). Asoka. London: Oxford University Press.
External links[edit]
Media related to Ashoka at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to Ashoka at Wikiquote- Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- Ashoka at Curlie
- BBC Radio 4: Sunil Khilnani, Incarnations: Ashoka.
- BBC Radio 4: Melvyn Bragg with Richard Gombrich et al., In Our Time, Ashoka the Great.
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