A Critical and Theological Assessment of Protestant Churches’ Contribution to the Political Ideology of Division in South Korea from 1948 to 2022
A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities
2025
Sunkyo Park
School of Arts, Languages and Cultures
Department of Religions and Theology
List of Tables 7
Abbreviations 8
Glossary of Korean Terms 9
Notes on Romanisation and Translation 11
Abstract 12
Declaration 13
Copyright Statement 14
Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………15
Part Ⅰ South Korea: The South Korean Church’s Theology and The Political Ideology of Division
Chapter 1
Introduction: Background, Definitions, and Methodology…………………………………17
1.1 Two Aspects: The Division of the Korean Peninsula and the South Korean Church…...17
1.2 Scope………………………………………………………………………………….20
1.2.1 Political Ideology of Division: Anti-communism………………………………...20
1.2.2 South Korean Church…………………………………………………………….23
1.2.3 Discourse…………………………………………………………………………27
1.3 Previous Studies……………………………………………………………………….28
1.4 Methodology………………………………………………………………………….34
1.4.1 Political theology vs. Political Theology…………………………………………35
1.4.2 Historical Approach………………………………………………………………37
1.4.3 Comparative Approach…………………………………………………………39
1.5 Summary of the Argument…………………………………………………………....42
Chapter 2
The South Korean Church Contexts (1): Historical and Socio-Political Dimensions……44
2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………44
2.2 The Historical Dimension: The Trajectory of Anti-Communism…………………….45
2.2.1 The Beginnings of Anti-Communism…………………………………………….45
2.2.2 A Reinforcement of Anti-Communism (1948−1980) ……………………….........49
2.2.3 A Challenge to Anti-Communism (1980–2003) ………………………………….52
2.2.4 A Change in Anti-Communism (2003–2022) …………………………………….55
2.3 The Socio-Political Dimension……………………………..........................................56
2.4 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….59
Chapter 3
The South Korean Church Contexts (2): Theological Dimension…………………………….62
3.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………62
3.2 Factors for Reinforcing Anti-communism in the South Korean Church……………….63
3.3 Theological Differences between Conservative and Progressive Churches……….70
3.4 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….........76
Part Ⅱ The Role and Contributions of the South Korean Church to the Trajectory of AntiCommunism
Chapter 4
The Trajectory of Anti-Communism (1): The Role and Contributions of the South Korean Church in Reinforcing Anti-Communism (1948-1980) ……………………………………...78
4.1 Introduction………………………….………………………………………………...78
4.2 Two Pastors and Their Discourses………………………….……….............................80
4.2.1 The Common Ground of Two Pastors………………………….………................81
4.2.2 The Discourses of Two Pastors………………………….………..........................85
4.3 Theological Perspectives of Two Pastors’ Discourses………………………….……...89
4.3.1 Perceptions of Communism: Atheism and Materialism………………………….89
4.3.2 Apocalyptic View and Dualism………………………….……….........................92
4.3.3 God’s Chosen People and Holy War Theory………………………….………......95
4.4 Reinforcement of Anti-Communism………………………….……….........................98
4.4.1 Demonisation: Using Their Discourse to Create Adversary Images……………...98
4.4.2 Spiritual Warfare: Direct Violence and Mass Evangelical Rallies……………….100
4.4.3 Support for Government Policies………………………….……………………104
4.5 Conclusion………………………….………………………………………………106
Chapter 5
The Trajectory of Anti-Communism (2): The Role and Contributions of the South Korean Church in Challenging Anti-Communism (1980-2003) …………………………………….109
5.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………109
5.2 NCCK’s and WCC’s Statements and the North Korean Church……………………112
5.2.1 Statements from the NCCK and the WCC………………………………………112
5.2.2 North Korean Church……………………………………………………………113
5.3 Theological Perspectives of Progressive Churches….………………………………115
5.3.1 Cause of Division: The Root of All Evil and the Cause of Structural Sin……….116
5.3.2 A New Vision: Liberation and New Heaven and New Earth…………………….120
5.3.3 God’s Chosen People: Apostles of Peace………………………………………122
5.4 Challenge of Anti-Communism……………………………………………………124
5.4.1 Deconstructing Demonisation of North Korea………………………………….124
5.4.2 Dialogue and Cooperation: International Consultations and Conferences………128
5.4.3 Challenges to Government Policy………………………………………………129
5.5 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………131
Chapter 6
The Trajectory of Anti-Communism (3): The Role and Contributions of the South Korean Church in Changing in Anti-Communism (2003-2022) …………………………………….134
6.1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………….134
6.2 The Political Engagement of Conservative Churches and the CCK’s Statements….…137
6.2.1 Political Engagement of Conservative Churches and the CCK…….……………137
6.2.2 Statements from the CCK…………………………………………………….…140
6.3 Theological Perspectives of the CCK Discourse…………………………………….143
6.3.1 The Fall: Moral Depravity………………………………………………………144
6.3.2 Salvation: Exclusivity and Othering…………………………………………….152
6.4 A Counter-Theological Discourse: ‘A Theology of Hospitality and Embrace’……….158
6.5 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………161 Part Ⅲ An Alternative Theological Discourse on The Divided Korean Peninsula
Chapter 7
An Alternative Theological Discourse to Conservative Churches’ Theological Discourse….164
7.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………164
7.2 Conservative Churches’ Continuous Creation of Enemies……...……………………165
7.2.1 Conservative Churches’ Apocalyptic Unconscious and Its Crises………………165
7.2.2 Conservative Churches’ Theological Justification………………………………168
7.3 Alternative Theological Discourse…………………………………………………172
7.3.1 Alternative Theological Discourse: Sin…………………………………………172
7.3.2 Alternative Theological Discourse: Salvation………………………………….175
7.3.3 Alternative Theological Discourse: Apocalypse as a Positive Driving Force for
Renewing Our Broken World…………………………………………………….177
7.4 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………179
Chapter 8
An Alternative Theological Discourse to Progressive Churches’ Theological Discourse…...181
8.1 Two Aspects of Progressive Churches’ Alternative Theological Discourse………….181
8.2 Progressive Churches’ Theological Discourse……….………………………………182
8.2.1 Sin: Human Greed and Han…………………………………………………….183
8.2.2 Salvation: Restoring the Other’s Han…………………………………………187
8.2.3 Apocalypse: Not the End, but Here and Now………………………………….189
8.3 Progressive Churches’ Alternative Theological Discourse…….…………………….190
8.3.1 Salim and Imagination………………………………………………………….191
8.3.2 The Imagination of Salim (1): Interconnectedness and Hospitality……….…….195
8.3.3 The Imagination of Salim (2): A Prophetic Perspective…………………………196
8.3.4 The Imagination of Salim (3): Resistance……………………………………….198
8.4 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………200
Chapter 9
Conclusion: Two Churches’ Political Theologies and A Theology of the Eucharist………....203
9.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………. 203
9.2 Schmitt’s and Metz’s Definitions of Political Theologies……………………….…204
9.3 Power in the Two Churches………………………………………………………….207
9.4 Salvation in the Two Churches……………………………………………………….209
9.5 A Theology of the Eucharist as an Alternative Theological Discourse……………….211
9.6 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………...218
Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………...223
Appendix…………………………………………………………………………………....246
Glossary of Korean Terms
국가조찬기도회 Gukgajochangidohoe/Korea National Prayer Breakfast
남남갈등 Namnam galdeung/political and ideological tensions within South Korea
남북갈등 Nambuk galdeung/political and ideological tensions between North and South Korea
남북나눔운동 Nambuknanumundong/North-South Sharing Movement
단 Dan/the act of cutting off
대한기독교구국회 Daehangidokgyogugukhoe/Christian National Rescue Society
민중 Minjung/ordinary people, Ochlos in Mark
민족 Minjok/a people, particularly an ethnic group
민족복음화운동 Minjokbogeumhwaundong/National Evangelisation Movement
민중신학 Minjung Sinhak/Minjung theology
분단신학 Bundan Sinhak/Division theology
상생 Sang Saeng/living together
살림 Salim/women’s everyday household work, life-giving
서북청년단 Seobukcheongnyeondan/Northwest Youth Association
선명회 Seonmyeonghoe/later known as World Vision
시국 Sikuk/present condition of events
신명 Shin Myung/always singing and dancing
용공 Yonggong/pro-communist
용공분자 Yonggongbunja/pro-communist individual(s)
용공단체 Yonggongdanche/pro-communist organisation
전군신자화운동 Jeongunsinjahwaundong/Total Religionisation Movement in the Military
종북게이 Jongbuk-gay/pro-North Korean gay
종북좌파 Jongbuk-jwapa/pro-North Korean left
창조신앙 Changjo-sinang/creation faith
통일신학 Tongil Sinhak/Reunification theology
평화신학 Pyeonghwa Sinhak/Peace theology
한 Han/pain and suffering; depths of human suffering
한국반공연맹 Hangukbangongyeonmaeng/Korean Anti-Communist League
희년신학 Huinyeon Sinhak/Jubilee theology
Notes on Romanisation and Translation
The study adopts the Revised Romanisation of Korean, as established by the National Institute of Korean Language. For widely recognised historical figures, such as Rhee Syngman and Park Chung-hee, their conventional Anglicised spellings are retained. Korean names are presented with the surnames preceding given names in the main text, except in cases involving Korean scholars who publish in English, including the researcher (Sunkyo Park), where the Anglicised spelling is used.
Titles of Korean materials translated into English and all of the Korean texts translated into English are my translation unless otherwise noted.
Abstract
The primary questions of the thesis are: what is the political ideology of division, and what theological contributions do the conservative and progressive factions of the South Korean Protestant Church make to that ideology? This thesis addresses these research questions from the perspective of theological political theology, which delineates the church’s role in the political ideology. The thesis explicitly explores this perspective within the framework of power and salvation. It defines the political ideology of division as anti-communism. In this context, power signifies a mechanism that either reinforces or challenges the ideology. This thesis hypothesises that salvation results from the influence and direction of that power. This is specifically the peace on the Korean Peninsula that both conservative and progressive churches seek to realise through anti-communism: either perpetuating the division of the Korean Peninsula or transcending it.
Part Ⅰ of this thesis focuses on historical, socio-political, and theological dimensions of anti-communism. The thesis analyses the background and important factors that led to the formation of anticommunism as the dominant discourse before and immediately after the establishment of separate governments in North and South Korea (1948), including the period of the United States Army’s Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK, 1945−48).
Part Ⅱ of this thesis analyses the theological contributions of conservative and progressive churches in South Korea to the political ideology of division, particularly anti-communism, by scrutinising selected theological discourses in three distinct periods. The first period (1948−1980) examines the sermons, publications, and newspaper articles of Han Kyung-Chik and Kim Jun-Gon. The second (1980−2003) and third (2003−2022) periods analyse the official statements and newspaper articles of the National Council of Churches in Korea (NCCK) and the Christian Council of Korea (CCK) to investigate their theological underpinnings.
In Part Ⅲ, this thesis identifies the challenges arising from the two churches discussed in Part Ⅱ. With this analysis, the thesis proposes theological alternatives to the South Korean church’s political ideology. To achieve this, the thesis compares these two churches’ theological differences regarding sin, salvation, and apocalypse, as well as their political theologies of power and salvation, employing the frameworks of Carl Schmitt’s political theology and Johann Baptist Metz’s new political theology. This thesis concludes that the imagination of Salim and a theology of the Eucharist serve as theological alternatives to transcend the political ideology of division rooted in anti-communism. This thesis academically clarifies the changes in anti-communism in the South Korean church and its theological content. This analysis serves both academic and practical purposes. It will provide a crucial scholarly basis for comprehending anti-communism and related phenomena, such as extreme right-wing movements, which are currently a problematic issue in the South Korean church.
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