A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY ON THE ROLE OF JUCHE, MILITARISM, AND
HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE EDUCATIONAL LIFE EXPERIENCES OF NORTH KOREAN
DEFECTORS
by
Andrea Rakushin Lee
Liberty University
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
Liberty University
April, 2014
1
A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY ON THE ROLE OF JUCHE, MILITARISM, AND
HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE EDUCATIONAL LIFE EXPERIENCES OF NORTH KOREAN
DEFECTORS
by Andrea Rakushin Lee
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA
April, 2014
APPROVED BY:
James Swezey, Ed.D., Committee Chair
Feng Wang, Ph.D., Committee Member
Minjeong Kim, Ph.D., Committee Member
Scott Watson, Ph.D., Associate Dean, Advanced Programs
2
ABSTRACT
This transcendental phenomenological study describes the essence of the premigration,
transmigration, and postmigration educational life experiences of 15 North Korean defectors in
South Korea in light of their exposure to Juche, militarism, and human rights violations. The
literature review includes a theoretical framework rooted in the transformative learning theory
and pertinent themes related to the educational experiences of North Korean defectors. Data was
collected through a demographic survey; a timeline of primary life events; standardized, openended interviews; and journal entries. The central research question examined primary themes
from the educational life experiences of North Korean defectors during premigration,
transmigration, and postmigration. Data analysis procedures included finding significant
statements, synthesizing a field journal, and creating textural and structural descriptions which
led to the essence of the overall experience. Premigration themes that emerged include the
importance of social status, poverty and extreme hardship, Kim family indoctrination, regular
participation in saenghwal chonghwa, a variety of behaviors and interactions in the classroom,
the importance of Juche and militarism, and unbalanced education. Transmigration themes
primarily center on a lack of education. Postmigration themes predominately highlight
adaptation problems and the participants’ present views of Juche, militarism, and human rights.
Finally, future themes include education as a key to success and reunification dreams.
Keywords: North Korean defectors, North Korean refugees, Juche, militarism, human
rights, modern underground railroad
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Dedication
This study is dedicated to the people of North Korea. I genuinely hope that all North
Korean people will one day soon experience freedom and be given an education that is based on
the truth and promotes personal development and success. I feel blessed to have heard the
inspirational stories of hope and perseverance of many North Korean defectors. Viktor Frankl
(2006) clearly articulated the power of humans to overcome adversity when he stated,
We must never forget that we may also find meaning in life even when confronted with a
hopeless situation, when facing a fate that cannot be changed. For what then matters is
which is to transform a personal tragedy into triumph, to turn one’s predicament into a
human achievement. (p. 112)
The testimonies of North Korean people need to be shared with the world. I am grateful that I
had the opportunity to be in their presence and to learn from them. They are my teachers and
will forever hold a special place in my heart. I am also profoundly inspired by the heroes of the
modern underground railroad who have risked their lives to save North Korean refugees.
Finally, I gained a lot of insight from passionate and dedicated unsung heroes around the world
who champion human rights and have devoted so much time and energy to this cause.
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Acknowledgements
I am incredibly thankful for the support of my chair, Dr. James Swezey and for his
guidance and direction throughout this process. I am also grateful for the assistance of my other
committee members, Dr. Feng Wang and Dr. Minjeong Kim. My committee members have
taught me many important lessons as a researcher and writer. Their knowledge and expertise are
invaluable. They have spent many hours providing direction and support. I am very appreciative
of all of the time and effort that they have put into this dissertation.
I am thankful for my husband Jaejoon and my family who have provided so much
assistance and support. Additionally, I would like to thank my friends who have helped me in
numerous ways throughout the dissertation process. I am also blessed to have met so many
North Korean defectors who inspired me to write this dissertation. Furthermore, I am grateful
for the North Korean defectors who sacrificed their time to participate in this research. This
study would not have been possible without them.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………………………2
Dedication Page .............................................................................................................. 3
Acknowledgments Page .................................................................................................. 4
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................ 5
List of Figures ............................................................................................................... 13
List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................... 14
Korean Language .......................................................................................................... 15
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... 17
Background .................................................................................................................. 18
Definitions .................................................................................................................... 21
Premigration .............................................................................................................. 21
Transmigration .......................................................................................................... 21
Postmigration ............................................................................................................ 22
General Term ............................................................................................................ 23
Situation to Self ............................................................................................................ 23
Problem Statement ........................................................................................................ 24
Purpose Statement ......................................................................................................... 25
Significance of the Study…………………………………………………..………… 25
Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 29
Delimitations ................................................................................................................. 32
Research Plan ................................................................................................................ 32
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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................... 35
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 35
Theoretical Framework: Transformative Learning Theory ......................................... 35
Development from other Theories ............................................................................ 36
Experience and the Process of Learning ................................................................... 37
Frames of Reference and Meaning Structure ............................................................ 38
Learning Process ....................................................................................................... 38
Critical Reflection ..................................................................................................... 39
Reflective Discourse and Transformation ................................................................ 40
Historical Background of North Korea ......................................................................... 41
Post-World War II (1945-1950)................................................................................ 43
The Korean War (1950-1953) ................................................................................... 44
The Kim Il Sung Administration (1948-1994) ......................................................... 46
The Kim Jong Il Administration (1994-2011) .......................................................... 51
The Kim Jong Eun Administration (2011-Present) .................................................. 53
Education in North Korea ............................................................................................. 55
Historical Overview of the Education System (1910-Present) ................................. 55
The Present Education System.................................................................................. 60
Early Childhood Education ....................................................................................... 62
Primary School.......................................................................................................... 62
Lower and Upper Middle School .............................................................................. 63
Higher Education ...................................................................................................... 65
Issues in North Korean Education ................................................................................ 66
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Juche ......................................................................................................................... 66
Militarism .................................................................................................................. 69
Human Rights Violations .......................................................................................... 76
International and Technological Influences on North Koreans .................................... 81
China ......................................................................................................................... 81
South Korea .............................................................................................................. 82
Other Methods .......................................................................................................... 83
Reasons for Escaping .................................................................................................... 85
The Modern Underground Railroad ............................................................................. 86
Problems on the Modern Underground Railroad ...................................................... 91
Common Routes on the Modern Underground Railroad .......................................... 96
Initial Transition in South Korea .................................................................................. 99
Overview of South Korean Society .......................................................................... 99
Interrogation ............................................................................................................ 101
Hanawon ................................................................................................................. 102
Adaptation Problems ............................................................................................... 102
Adult Education ...................................................................................................... 103
Education for Children and Youth .......................................................................... 104
Integration into South Korean Society ........................................................................ 105
Social Problems ...... ………………………………………………………………108
Employment Problems ............................................................................................ 110
Language Problems ................................................................................................. 110
Medical and Psychological Problems ..................................................................... 112
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Educational Problems ............................................................................................. 114
Education about North Korea in South Korea ............................................................ 117
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 119
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ....................................................................... 121
Design ......................................................................................................................... 121
Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 123
Participants .................................................................................................................. 123
Interpreter and Translator ........................................................................................... 124
Setting ........................................................................................................................ 125
Procedures ................................................................................................................... 125
Researcher’s Role ....................................................................................................... 128
Data Collection ........................................................................................................... 131
Demographic Survey .............................................................................................. 131
Timeline of Primary Life Events ............................................................................ 133
Standardized, Open-Ended Interviews.................................................................... 134
Journal Entries ....................................................................................................... 139
Data Analysis .............................................................................................................. 139
Trustworthiness ........................................................................................................... 145
External Auditing, Peer Reviewing, and Translation Checks .................................... 146
Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................ 147
Epoche ........................................................................................................................ 149
Minimizing Bias ......................................................................................................... 151
Pilot Data .................................................................................................................... 154
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Participant Summary ................................................................................................... 155
Participant Profiles ...................................................................................................... 160
Cheol Su .................................................................................................................. 160
Hee Cheol................................................................................................................ 160
Hyeon Su ................................................................................................................. 160
Kyoung Hee……………………………………..................................................... 161
Kyu Hyeon .............................................................................................................. 161
Min Sik.................................................................................................................... 161
Min Su………………………………………......................................................... 162
Seon Young ............................................................................................................. 162
Seong Cheol ............................................................................................................ 163
Su Jung .................................................................................................................... 163
Yoon Cheol……………………………………......................................................164
Yoon Hee ................................................................................................................ 164
Yoon Su .................................................................................................................. 164
Young Cheol………………………………........................................................... 165
Young Su ………………………………………………………………………... 166
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS ...................................................................................... 167
Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 168
Research Question Results …………………………………………………………. 168
Premigration…………………………………….................................................... 168
Transmigration ........................................................................................................ 191
Postmigration .......................................................................................................... 201
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Postmigration Perspectives of North Korea............................................................ 208
The Future ............................................................................................................... 214
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 218
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION .................................................................................. 220
Summary ......................................................................................................................... 220
Discussion of the Findings .............................................................................................. 220
Theoretical Implications ……………………………………………………………….225
Participant Recommendations ………………………………………………………… 229
Educational Support for North Korean Defectors………………………………... 229
Financial Support for North Korean Defectors ....................................................... 231
Reunification ........................................................................................................... 232
Learning from the North Korean Education System .............................................. 233
Employment Support for North Korean Defectors………………………………. 233
Educational Recommendations for South Korean Society ..................................... 234
Overseas Opportunities ………………………………………………………….. 236
Enough Support………………………………………………………………….. 236
Researcher Recommendations ........................................................................................ 237
Education Policies Related to North Korean Defectors………………………….. 237
Educating the South Korean Populace .................................................................... 238
Reunification Curriculum ....................................................................................... 240
North Korean Defectors as Reunification Leaders ................................................. 241
North Korean Refugees in Other Countries ............................................................ 241
Study Abroad Programs…………………………………………………………...242
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Adapting in the Global Era ..................................................................................... 243
Foreigners in South Korea ...................................................................................... 243
Volunteer Programs…………………………………….........................................244
Programs Based on Age…………………………………………………………...245
English .................................................................................................................... 245
Graduate Studies…………………………………………………………………..246
Christian Programs During Transmigration............................................................ 247
Limitations ...................................................................................................................... 248
Future Research Recommendations ................................................................................ 254
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 256
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 258
APPENDICIES ............................................................................................................... 298
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