인도네시아의 역사
| 인도네시아의 역사 Sejarah Indonesia |
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다음은 인도네시아의 역사에 대한 설명이다.
17세기 이전
기원전 3000~2000년경에 말레이시아인이 동남아시아 대륙에서 이주해 와 원주민을 쫓아내고 정주했다. 기원 전후해서 인도인이 들어옴으로써 힌두교와 불교가 소개되었다.
130년에 자바 서부에서 살락 왕국이 건국되었다. 358년에는 살락 왕국에서 타루마 왕국으로 바뀌었다. 처음 인도네시아에 인도인이 들어온 시기는 서기 423년쯤이었다. 불교와 힌두교가 소개되면서 650년에 건국된 스리위자야 왕국은 불교를 국교로 정하기도 했다. 타루마 왕국은 7세기 중반 스리위자야 왕국의 개입으로 669년 멸망했다.
650년에 수마트라의 팔렘방에 스리비자야 왕국이 건국되었다. 8세기에는 자바에서 사이렌드라 왕조가 일어나 보로부두르 등에 사원을 건설했다. 669년 자바 서부의 왕국인 타루마 왕국이 멸망하고 순다 왕국이 건국되었다. 하지만 순다 왕국은 840년대까지 갈루 왕국과 순다 왕국으로 분열되었다.
1293년에 건국된 자바의 마자파힛 제국의 세력 범위는 현재의 인도네시아를 능가하는 수준에 이르렀다. 1430년에 치르본 술탄국이 건국되었다. 1481년에는 드막 술탄국이 건국되었고 1496년에는 아체 술탄국이 건국되었다. 1511년에 아체 술탄국은 믈라카 술탄국과 전쟁을 벌였다. 1526년에 반튼 술탄국이 건국되었다. 1527년에는 드막 술탄국이 마자파힛 제국을 완전히 무너뜨렸다. 1554년 드막 술탄국이 멸망했다. 1565년 아체 술탄국과 조호르 술탄국 간의 전쟁이 일어났다. 1579년 반튼 술탄국의 개입으로 순다 왕국이 멸망했다. 1587년에 드막 술탄국을 잇는 마타람 술탄국이 건국되었다. 1595년 네덜란드인들은 인도네시아의 술라웨시섬에 도착한다.
네덜란드의 식민 통치기
1602년에 네덜란드가 동인도 회사를 설립하면서 향료(香料) 무역의 독점을 노려 인도네시아를 자신들의 지배 하에 놓았다.
네덜란드 식민지 시대 (1799년~1941년)
그 후 네덜란드와 영국 간의 세력 각축의 결과 인도네시아는 일시 영국의 지배하에 들어갔으나 1824년의 조약으로 네덜란드의 인도네시아 지배가 확립되었다. 1903년 네덜란드령 동인도로 인해 아체 술탄국이 멸망했다.
현대 인도네시아사
2차 대전 중 인도네시아는 일본군의 지배 하에 있었는데 1945년 대전이 끝나면서 수카르노가 인도네시아의 독립을 선언했다. 인도네시아 지역의 지배권을 잃고 싶지 않던 네덜란드는 인도네시아 독립전쟁을 일으킨다. 하지만 결국 인도네시아가 1949년 12월 27일 정치적으로 승리한다. 1949년 인도네시아는 네덜란드 연합 산하의 독립국가로 발족했다. 1950년에는 인도네시아가 UN의 승인을 받았다. 1956년에는 네덜란드와의 관계를 끊고 완전한 독립국가가 되었으며, 당시 말레이시아 건국을 반대했던 인도네시아는 1963년 말레이시아를 침공했다. 영국군이 말레이시아를 지원하면서 인도네시아는 1966년 말레이시아에게 패하고 만다. 1976년에는 포르투갈의 식민지였던 동티모르 섬을 합병했다. 동티모르는 1999년 8월 주민 투표에 의해 독립이 결정되었다.
インドネシアの歴史
| インドネシアの歴史 |
|---|
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| 初期王国 |
| クタイ王国 (4世紀末-5世紀初め頃) |
| タルマヌガラ王国 (358-723) |
| スンダ王国 (669-1579) |
| シュリーヴィジャヤ王国 (7世紀–14世紀) |
| シャイレーンドラ朝 (8世紀–9世紀) |
| 古マタラム王国 (752–1045) |
| クディリ王国 (1045–1221) |
| シンガサリ王国 (1222–1292) |
| サムドラ・パサイ王国 (1267-1521) |
| マジャパヒト王国 (1293–1500) |
| イスラーム王朝の勃興 |
| マラッカ王国 (1400–1511) |
| ドゥマク王国 (1475–1518) |
| アチェ王国 (1496–1903) |
| バンテン王国 (1526–1813) |
| パジャン王国 (1568年-1586) |
| マタラム王国 (1500年代-1700年代) |
| ヨーロッパ植民地主義 |
| オランダ東インド会社 (1602–1800) |
| オランダ領東インド (1800–1942) |
| インドネシアの形成 |
| 日本占領下 (1942–1945) |
| 独立戦争 (1945–1950) |
| オランダ・インドネシア円卓会議 (1949) |
| インドネシアの独立 |
| 9月30日事件 (1965–1966) |
インドネシア史（インドネシアし）では、インドネシアの歴史について述べる。
大まかに分類しても70余の民族が居住する多民族国家であるインドネシア共和国に国のまとまりが生まれたのは比較的新しく、狭義のインドネシア史は第二次世界大戦後の独立時代に過ぎない。そもそも、この地域が始めて一つの政治体によって統一されたのは、17世紀に建設が始まり20世紀初頭にようやく完成をみたオランダ領東インドの時代が最初であった。
先史時代
この地域での人類の活動は、スンダランドが陸化する以前の更新世の時代にまで遡る。スンダランドとは、氷期に陸化していたスンダ陸棚のことである[1]。1890年11月末、ジャワ島中部のソロ川上流にあるトリニルの洪積層で、オランダ人軍医、ウジェーヌ・デュボアが、下顎の骨を発見し、翌年の秋ごろに同じ場所で頭蓋骨を発掘した。さらに翌年、その頭蓋骨の発掘場所から15mほど上流で、大腿骨を発見した。これらが現在ジャワ原人として知られる直立猿人の発見だった。デュボアの発見後も、ジャワ島の中部・東部地方を中心に、石器とともに原人や旧人の化石人骨が発見され、旧石器時代にこの地域で人類が活動していたことが確実となった[2]。他にも、旧石器時代に生存した人類として、メガントロプス・パレオジャパニクス、ピテカントロプス・エレクトス、ピテカントロプス・ソロエンシスなどの原人の化石がブンガワン・ソロ川の河川敷一帯で発見されている[3]。
紀元前70000年頃から紀元前14000年頃にかけての氷期にはスンダランドは陸地であった。インドネシアが現在のような多島海に姿を現すのは、約1万年前に起こった海水面の上昇によって、それまでジャワ・スマトラ・カリマンタンなどをアジア大陸に繋いでいたスンダランドが水没してからのことである。紀元前12000年頃から紀元前4000年にかけて約8000年間にわたる海面上昇によりスンダランドは海底に没した。
紀元前2500年から紀元前1500年頃にかけて、中国西南地方から移住した民族があり、水稲耕作を行っていた。
後にインドネシアとなる東南アジア島嶼部には、紀元前2千年紀からオーストロネシア語族に属する言葉を話すマレー系の民族が渡り、各島に定着していった。
ヒンドゥー化と仏教の伝来
紀元前1世紀の頃からはインド洋を渡ってインドの商人たちが訪れるようになり、ヒンドゥー教の影響を受けた独自の文化が発展し始め、5世紀頃から、ボルネオ島東部にクタイ王国、西部ジャワにタルマヌガラ王国が繁栄し始める。クタイ王国は、インドからマラッカ海峡、フィリピン、中国に抜ける交易ルートに位置していたためにインドからの船が寄航し中継貿易の利で繁栄したと思われる。
535年、クラカタウが噴火。535年から536年の異常気象現象の原因となった。
7世紀にジャワ島西部にスンダ族がスンダ王国（669年–1579年）を建国。 7世紀から11世紀にかけてスマトラ島南部パレンバンを本拠とするシュリーヴィジャヤ王国（7世紀-13世紀）がマラッカ海峡を制圧し、南海貿易をコントロールし仏教文化が栄え繁栄を極めた。
ジャワでは、8世紀前葉に古マタラム王国とシャイレーンドラ朝（8世紀-9世紀）が建国された。シャイレーンドラにより8世紀末から9世紀初めにジャワ島の中部に建設されたボロブドゥール寺院は、底部の一辺が120m、高さ約42mという巨大な大乗仏教の石造ストゥーパである。カンボジアやベトナム南部のチャンパ王国まで遠征したという説があるが、もともとインドネシア半島にいたオーストロネシア系の人々を指すとする見解が近年は有力である。
古マタラム王国は、10世紀初め頃まで続き、壮大なヒンドゥー寺院であるプランバナン寺院群を建設した。
929年には、東部ジャワにクディリ王国が建国され、交易の利権を巡って、ダルマヴァンシャ王がシュリーヴィジャヤの覇権に挑んだが、結局1016年にダルマヴァンシャが殺害されて、シュリーヴィジャヤの勝利に終った。しかし、1025年に南インドを支配していたチョーラ朝のラージェンドラ1世の軍勢の遠征でシュリーヴィジャヤは打撃を受けたことで衰退することになる。
その後、ジャワでは、1222年にケン・アロクによって、シンガサリ朝が建国された。最後の王クルタナガラのとき、モンゴル帝国、元朝の使者が来たが、その顔に刺青を入れて送り返したので、元の大ハーン、皇帝クビライは報復として大軍を派遣した。ジャワ島は元の遠征（モンゴルのジャワ侵攻）で被害を受けたが、やがて元軍を撃退したラデン・ウィジャヤが1292年にマジャパヒト王国を建国した。
マジャパヒトは、名宰相ガジャ・マダのもと、14世紀から15世紀にかけて繁栄した。1365年に完成させた古ジャワ語の韻文叙事詩『デーシャワルナナ Desawarnana（地方の描写）』（通称『ナーガラクルターガマ Nāgarakertāgama（聖なる教えによって完成された王国））』は、ジャワ島東部を本拠として今日のほぼインドネシア全域、フィリピンの一部やマレーシアを含めた広大な版図を支配したとする。これは史書の筆法に過ぎず、それぞれの地域に一時的に影響力を行使した可能性は残るものの、これらの領域を同時に支配したわけではない[要出典]。
イスラーム化の時代
東南アジアの諸王朝でイスラームの受容が始まるのは、13世紀末頃のスマトラ島北部においてであり、その中心地はパサイ王国だった[4]。これに先だって、既に11世紀頃にはムスリム商人の往来が始まっており、彼らは現地の支配者層と密接な関係を築いていた[5]。
ヒンドゥー教国だったマジャパヒト王国では、その末期に王クルタウィジャヤが、チャンパからムスリムの公主を息子のブラウィジャヤの妃に迎え、また、国内ではイスラームへの改宗を容認した。15世紀にマジャパヒト王国を訪れた明の鄭和は雲南出身のムスリム中国人であった。クルタウィジャヤはムスリムの経済力に太刀打ちできず、王朝の権威は低下したがイスラーム化はしなかった。
ジャワ島におけるイスラーム国家成立の歴史は、15世紀末に建国されたドゥマク王国に始まる。ドゥマク王国は、1478年にマジャパヒト王国のブラウィジャヤ王に宗主権を認めさせた。また、ジャワ北岸のイスラム化した港市国家もマジャパヒトから離反し、内陸部に勢力を持つマジャパヒト王国は、海岸に面した良港を持つ北岸の諸国への影響力を失った[6]。ドゥマク王国は16世紀前半にマジャパヒト王国を倒して、ジャワ島で最初のイスラーム国家になった[7]。ジャワ島西部でも、ドゥマク王国の支援を受けたバンテン王国がイスラームを受容し、ジャワ島全域でイスラームが浸透していった。
ジャワ島で活発な布教活動を行なったのはワリ・サンガ（九聖人）といわれるスーフィー聖者たちであり、彼らはジャワ島の各地にプサントレンを作って、そこを拠点にジャワ人子弟を教育し、民衆レベルでのイスラーム浸透に積極的な役割を果たした[8]。
スマトラ島では、15世紀末には既に独立していたアチェ王国がイスラーム化しており、この海域での交易の中心地として発展を遂げた。また、16世紀前半には、マラッカ海峡に面するスマトラ東岸のほとんどの港市がイスラームに改宗していた[9]。
オランダ領東インドの形成
16世紀になると、大航海時代のヨーロッパ勢力が香辛料貿易の利益を求めてこの地域に現れるようになった。
1602年、オランダ東インド会社がジャワ島に進出し、オランダによる植民地化の時代が始まる。オランダ人たちは前世紀にこの地域に到達していたポルトガルや、同じ時期にやってきた競争相手のイギリスを追いやってこの地域における主導権を握り、長い時間をかけて次第に支配地を現在のインドネシアの領域全体へと拡大していった。
その拠点として1619年に制圧されたのがバンテン王国の首都ジャカルタであり、オランダ人はこの町をバタヴィアと改名した。
1660年よりオランダ東インド会社は、スラウェシ島のマカッサル西海岸でゴワ王国との戦争に突入し、1669年にスラウェシ島支配に関するボンガヤ条約が締結された。1665年から1667年にかけての第二次英蘭戦争で、バンダ諸島のラン島（香辛料貿易）とニューネーデルラント植民地のニューアムステルダム（毛皮貿易）の自治権とを交換して獲得し、香辛料貿易（ナツメグ、クローブ等）の独占を図った。イギリスは既に種子を持ち出しており、1815年頃からモーリシャスやグレナダなどでプランテーションを開始すると、香辛料はありふれた商品となってバンダ諸島の価値は相対的に下がっていくことになった。
18世紀には3次にわたるジャワ継承戦争（第1次ジャワ継承戦争（1704年～1708年）、第2次ジャワ継承戦争（1719年～1723年）、第3次ジャワ継承戦争（1749年～1757年））と華僑虐殺事件（1740年）によってマタラム王国が4分割されてオランダ東インド会社の保護下に組み入れられると、ジャワ島全域がその支配下に置かれた。1825年にはスルタン家のディポヌゴロがオランダへの反乱を起こすが、1830年に鎮圧されている（ジャワ戦争）。
19世紀に入るとナポレオン戦争によるオランダ本国の混乱もあって一時支配力が弱まるが、オランダ東インド会社が解散されてオランダ本国による植民地直接統治が始まり、オランダ人によるプランテーション経営が広まって経済的な搾取は強まっていった。
1815年5月5日、スンバワ島のタンボラ山が大噴火。翌年、夏のない年と呼ばれる異常気象に見舞われた。
パドリ戦争（1821年 - 1837年）。 1824年に英蘭協約を締結したが、この条約がアチェ戦争（1873年-1913年）の導火線となり、オランダが勝利してスマトラ島の支配権も確立し、ポルトガル領ティモール（現東ティモール）を除き東インド諸島は全てオランダ領とするのは20世紀に入ってからとなった。
1883年8月26日、クラカタウが噴火（1883年のクラカタウの噴火）。
インドネシアの形成
インドネシア民族主義運動の展開
20世紀初頭にオランダは従来の植民地政策を転換し、現地住民の福祉向上と、本国から植民地政府へ権限委譲を進める方針をとった。前時代の純益政策によって、植民地からオランダ本国に莫大な富がもたらされた一方で、過酷な搾取と「愚民化政策」のもとで、現地住民による初等教育の機会や産業の復興が制限され、その結果植民地の現地住民の窮乏化が進んだことを反省し、これまでより多くの恩恵を現地住民にもたらすことで、植民地における経済の復興を目指すという意図で始められたのが「倫理政策」と総称される一連の施策である。
これによって、現地住民には初等教育の機会が与えられ、また、親オランダ的な一部の住民エリートの子弟には、オランダ語での専門教育（行政学、経済学、医学など）の機会も与えられた。彼らの多くは、植民地政府の末端を担う下層行政官や、現地住民の福祉向上を担う医師となって、オランダ人の下で植民地統治の運営の一翼を担った[10]。しかし、これらの一部の親オランダ的なエリートを除く現地住民は、その後も初等教育以上のものを受ける機会は与えられなかった。
そのようにしてオランダ語で教育され、東インドに創設された大学や留学を許されたオランダ本国の大学で学んだ、親オランダ的な一部の学生たちの中から、民族の独立を志す者たちが現れた。その最初期には、ジャワの医学校で学ぶ学生たちを中心に、1908年に結成されたブディ・ウトモ（ジャワ語で「至高の徳」を意味する）のように、教育を通じてジャワ人の社会的地位を向上させようという、穏健な活動が始められた[11]。また宗主国オランダでも、東インド出身の学生たちが東インド協会 (Indische Vereniging) を結成し、出身地方の枠を超えた東インドの民族的一体感に目覚めていった[12]。
1911年に結成されたサレカット・イスラーム（イスラム同盟）は、当初は中国革命の進展によって東インドでの商業活動を俄かに活発化させた華僑商人に対抗して、ジャワのバティック商人が結成したものであったが、組織の主導権が商人層からオランダ語で教育を受けた知識人層に移ると、ジャワ島外にまで支部を結成して、東インド全体に広がる最初の大衆組織となった。サレカット・イスラームの指導者チョクロアミノトは各地で集会を催し、熱気のこもった演説とカリスマ性で熱狂的な人気を博した[13]。
第一次世界大戦を経て、サレカット・イスラームの会員数は200万人を超え、独立と社会主義を掲げるようになった。このように組織の性格が変わった要因として、ロシア革命の成功も挙げられよう。1920年にはアジア初の共産党としてインドネシア共産党（前身は1914年にスマランで結成された東インド社会民主主義同盟）が成立し、コミンテルンに加盟した。インドネシア共産党は原住民党員をサレカット・イスラームに加入させ、その組織内部で共産党の影響力を強めていくという方針を立てた[14]。その結果、サレカット・イスラーム内の主流派と共産派の対立が激化し、民族主義運動の潮流は分裂し、大衆の運動離れを招いた[15]。サレカット・イスラームから排除されたインドネシア共産党は、その地方支部が1926年から1927年にかけて散発的に起こした武装蜂起によって、植民地政府による弾圧を招いた。党の指導者は海外へ逃亡するか、東インドに潜伏するなどしたため、以後の民族主義運動は、スカルノらが1927年に結成したインドネシア国民党など、世俗主義を掲げる民族主義団体によって担われていくことになった。
戦前のインドネシア民族主義運動の頂点となったのは、1928年10月27日に開催されたインドネシア青年会議における「青年の誓い」採択だった[16]。
- われわれインドネシア青年男女は、インドネシア国というただ一つの祖国をもつことを確認します
- われわれインドネシア青年男女は、インドネシア民族というただ一つの民族であることを確認します
- われわれインドネシア青年男女は、インドネシア語という統一言語を使用します
ここにいたって、独立を求める人々は、オランダ領東インドの国名として、「インドネシア」の名を選び取り、この地域に住む様々な民族をインドネシア人として統一し、独立を達成する、という決意を内外に示したのである。
第二次世界大戦と日本軍政
太平洋戦争（大東亜戦争）最中の1942年2月、日本軍の侵攻によってオランダの植民地支配は崩壊した。東インドを占領した日本は、日本陸軍の今村均中将により全域を軍政支配下に置いた。石油を始めとする天然資源の確保のため、軍政に現地住民の協力をとりつける必要があったこともあり、今村中将による軍政下ではインドネシア人に対する緩和政策を基本とし、大東亜政略指導大綱に基づき東インドを大日本帝国領土とすることが決定された[要出典]。
そのため、オランダによって捕らえられ、流刑先にあったスカルノやハッタらの民族主義運動の指導者を解放し、またナフダトゥル・ウラマーなどイスラーム系諸団体の宗教指導者らに協力を要請し、彼らの指導力を利用して、物的・人的資源の調達を図ろうととした。一方の民族主義運動の指導者たちも、軍政当局によって与えられた地位を活用して民衆に語りかけ、その民族意識を鼓舞した[要出典]。そうした活動によって、スカルノらは民族の指導者としての地位を確立していった。
これに併せて日本は、オランダ支配下で迫害されていたイスラム教の存在を認め、イスラム教徒による活動を自由化した他、オランダが行っていたオランダ語による初等教育、高等教育に変わって、インドネシア語と日本語による教育を行った[要出典]。
1942年4月、日本は、それまでオランダ領東インドで設置されていた人種別の複数種類の第一審裁判所のうち地方裁判所(Tihoo Hooin（地方法院）=Landraad)のみを残して一本化し、他は廃止した[17][18]。欧州人専用の訴訟法も無効となった[19]。
また、軍政当局は東インドにおける兵力不足を解消するために、兵補や郷土防衛義勇軍を設立して、現地住民の子弟たちに軍事教練を施した。その訓練は苛烈を極めたが、これらの軍事教育を受けた青年たちが、次の独立戦争でオランダと戦うインドネシアの軍事組織の将校団を形成していくことになった[要出典]。
インパール作戦の失敗によって戦況が悪化すると、日本はインドネシアの独立を認める方針に変更した。それまでは大東亜会議にインドネシア代表を招かないなど帝国領土への編入を前提とした方針をとっていたが、1944年9月にはインドネシア国旗の掲揚と国歌の斉唱を解禁した他、1945年3月には独立準備委員会を発足させた。同委員会は同年8月19日にスカルノとハッタ、ラジマンによって独立宣言するという方針を決定し、軍政当局や日本政府もこれを承認した[要出典]。
独立戦争
しかし、1945年8月15日に日本がオランダを含む連合国軍に降伏し、念願の独立が反故になることを恐れたスカルノら民族主義者は同月17日にジャカルタのプガンサアン・ティムール通り56番地のスカルノ邸の前でインドネシア独立を宣言し（独立宣言文の日付は皇紀を用いている）、スカルノが大統領に選出された。独立宣言は他民族によるインドネシアの民族および国に対するあらゆる形の植民地支配から独立し、自由になることの声明であった[20]。
1945年8月18日、インドネシアは憲法を制定・公布・施行し、その経過規定第2条において、日本軍政期に有効であった法制度は引き続き有効である旨規定された[19]。言い換えると、日本軍の侵攻前のオランダ領東インドの法制度に戻ることはなかった[21]。
しかしオランダはこの独立宣言とスカルノの大統領就任を無効とし、独立を目指すスカルノやハッタらの民族主義者やブントモらの軍人と、日本軍の武装解除を行ったイギリス軍、および植民地支配再開を願って戻って来たオランダ軍の間で4年にわたってインドネシア独立戦争が展開された。
戦前のオランダによる峻烈な搾取を排除し独立を目指す人々の戦意は高く、刀剣、竹槍、棍棒、毒矢、罠などの武器の他、降伏後に日本軍が去ってオランダやイギリスの管理下に置かれた兵器庫から奪ったり、降伏を潔しとしない日本軍人の一部が横流しした武器・弾薬で武装し、様々な手段で連合軍を苦しめた。なお独立派には、日本軍政下で独立派への軍事教練を行っていた日本軍人が2000人加わり、訓練や教育、宣撫に活躍し、その半数は戦死したものの戦闘に参加した者もいた。
この戦争の結果、疲弊消耗の極に達したオランダ軍はようやく再植民地化を諦め、1949年12月国連の斡旋でデン・ハーグで行なわれたオランダ-インドネシア円卓会議（通称、ハーグ円卓会議）によりオランダは正式にインドネシア連邦共和国 (Republik Indonesia Serikat) 独立を承認した。
独立後のインドネシア
議会制民主主義期
1949年12月27日、ハーグ協定の署名式が行われ、この日に主権はオランダからインドネシア連邦共和国に委譲された。この連邦共和国は、16の国・自治地域から構成され、各構成国・自治地域は以下の通りである：インドネシア共和国、東インドネシア国、パスンダン国、東ジャワ国、マドゥラ国、東スマトラ国、南スマトラ国、中部ジャワ自治国、バンカ自治国、ビリトン自治国、リアウ自治国、西カリマンタン特別地域、大ダヤク自治国、バンジャル地域、東南カリマンタン、東カリマンタン[22]。そのうちインドネシア共和国は、ジャワの約半分とスマトラの大部分を有し、人口でも、連邦共和国全体で4600万人のうち、3100万人を占めていた[23]。
インドネシア共和国以外の構成国の多くは、独立戦争の最中にオランダが自らを利するために現地支配者層と結んで作った傀儡国家であった。しかし、独立戦争末期にはこれらの諸国でも「オランダ離れ」が進んでおり、政治指導者たちの間でも、オランダよりもインドネシア共和国と協調したほうが現実的であると考えられるようになっていた[24]。自治国の一つだったパスンダン国のバンドンで、元蘭印軍大尉ウェステルリンクの私兵Legioen van Ratu Adil（APRA）が破壊活動を行うなどの逆行する流れもあったが（en:APRA coup d'état）、1950年1月、このパスンダン国は解散し、共和国に合流した。同年3月には他の11国がこれに倣い、最終的には同年8月15日、連邦共和国は解散されて、残りの国も含めた単一のインドネシア共和国が発足した[25]。同日にインドネシア共和国暫定憲法（以下、1950年憲法と略す）を公布・施行し、議会制民主主義のもとで国政を運営していくことになった。
なお、ハーグ協定によって、インドネシア連邦共和国とオランダは、オランダ女王を首長とするオランダ・インドネシア連合 (Uni Belanda-Indonesia) を形成すると規定されていたが、1951年1月にはインドネシア国民党を始めとする諸政党が連合破棄を求め[26]、1954年8月、このオランダとの連合国家の解消が宣言された。
1956年にはハーグ協定を正式に破棄して、西側に属するオランダと決別し、非同盟中立国家として歩むことを目指した。さらに1957年12月には、植民地時代から蓄え続けていた自らの利権を死守すべくインドネシア国内に残っていたオランダ人を追放した。
インドネシアは、オランダによる地域の統合をそのまま引き継いだ為、民族や文化に統一的なアイデンティティを求めることは難しかった。1955年9月29日に実施されたインドネシアでの国民議会議員選出の最初の総選挙（および12月15日の制憲議会議員選挙）には、様々な支持母体を持つ政党が参加し、3900万人以上のインドネシア国民が投票を行った。その結果は、インドネシア国民党、マシュミ、NUナフダトゥル・ウラマー党、インドネシア共産党の4大政党が票を分け合い、複雑な政治的対抗軸を形成した。民族・宗教・イデオロギーを異にする政党同士に妥協の余地は少なく、議会は空転し、この時期の内閣はいずれも短命に終わった[27]。
また、独立戦争期を通して、行政や国軍の内部では権力の分散化が進み、中央政府あるいは軍中枢からの統制は、必ずしも地方に及んでいなかった。イスラーム国家の樹立を目指すアチェ州のダウド・ブルエの反乱は独立戦争の最中から1965年まで続き、西ジャワのセカルマジ・マリジャン・カルトスウィルヨのダルル・イスラーム運動（1962年銃殺）、南スラウェシ州のカハル・ムザカルの反乱、そして1956年から1958年まで続いた西スマトラのプルメスタの反乱および同年から1961年まで継続して活動したインドネシア共和国革命政府[28]など、インドネシアは国家分裂の危機に瀕していた。
この当時のスカルノは、1955年に開催された第1回アジア・アフリカ会議（バンドン会議）を主催するなど、国際政治の場面では非同盟諸国のリーダーとして脚光を浴びていたが、国内政治においては、大統領に強大な権限を与えない1950年憲法のもとで、リーダーシップを発揮できない状態にあった[29]。
議会制民主主義の機能不全や、政党政治家たちの腐敗を目の当たりにして、スカルノは国軍司令官スディルマンの協力を得て、1959年7月、制憲議会の解散と、大統領に強大な権限を与える1945年憲法への復帰を宣言した。
スカルノ・指導される民主主義期
1945年憲法を復活させたスカルノが、自らのリーダーシップを維持しようとしていたこの時期、盛んに唱えていたのが「ナサコム NASAKOM」というスローガンである。これは民族主義 (Nasionalisme)、宗教 (Agama)、共産主義 (Komunisme) の各勢力に支持を訴え、挙国一致して国難を乗り切ることを目指すものであった。
「民族独立の父」としての地位、民衆を熱狂させたという弁舌の才とカリスマ性を持ちながら、スカルノは自らの特定の支持基盤を持っていなかった。また、独立後から内紛を続けてきたインドネシア国軍は、ナスティオンらによる合理化によって組織の求心力を高めることに成功しつつあり、スカルノにとって国軍は政治的脅威を与える存在となっていた。これを牽制するために、スカルノはインドネシア共産党に接近し、その大衆動員力を頼りにした。国軍と共産党は対立関係にあり、スカルノはその両者の調停役として振る舞うことによって、自らのリーダーシップを維持しようとした。
1961年12月、オランダの植民地として維持されていたニューギニア島西部（イリアンジャヤ）に「西イリアン解放作戦」として空挺部隊を派遣し、オランダとの戦闘の挙句これを占領した。国際連合の調停の結果停戦し、国連の暫定統治の後、1963年5月、その施政権がインドネシアに移管された[30]。この併合に反対する自由パプア運動やen:National Committee for West Papuaがインドネシア政府に反旗を翻し、パプア紛争（1963年–現在）が起こった[31]。
また、1963年にマラヤ連邦が北ボルネオ（現在のサバ州）をイギリスから譲り受けてマレーシアが建国されると、スカルノはこれをイギリスによる新植民地主義の現れであると非難し、「対決政策」を宣言した。インドネシアは「マレーシア粉砕」をスローガンに掲げて、マレーシア領へ侵入するなど、一触即発の事態となった。翌年に領有を主張するフィリピンも含めた3者が東京で会談するなどの外交的解決が模索されたが、最終的に現状維持で決着するには後述のスハルトの政権掌握を待たなければならなかった。
この対決政策によって、インドネシアはアメリカ合衆国とIMFからの経済援助を停止され、国際社会から孤立していった。スカルノは急速に中国に接近する。
1965年1月7日、国連を脱退した[32]。
1965年の独立記念日（8月17日）には、世界銀行とIMFからの脱退も宣言した[33]。 そのようにして対外政策が進んでいる間にも、インドネシア国内の経済状態は悪化し、インフレによる物資高騰は民衆の生活を苦しめた。
こうした状況に国軍主流派や一部の政党政治家、経済テクノクラートらは危機感を強め、スカルノと共産党に対する不満が高まっていった。このように緊張した政治環境の中で発生したのが9月30日事件だった。この事件は、1965年9月30日深夜から翌未明にかけて、共産党シンパの国軍部隊と、共産党傘下の組織が国軍幹部の6将軍を殺害したことに端を発する。陸軍戦略予備軍司令官だったスハルトがこれをすぐに鎮圧したため、左派勢力による政権奪取は失敗し、クーデター未遂事件として終わった。共産党に肩入れしていたスカルノは苦しい立場に追い込まれ、事態を回復するための一切の権限をスハルトに与えることになった。これを受けてスハルトは共産党員およびそのシンパを殺害、拘束し、国内の左派勢力を物理的に解体した。東南アジアで最大規模を誇ったインドネシア共産党が壊滅したことは、国内政治のみならず、冷戦期におけるこの地域の勢力図を一変させた。
1966年9月にインドネシアは国連に復帰した。その後、スカルノは事件への関与を疑われる厳しい立場に追い込まれ、国軍が煽動する反スカルノの民衆運動によって辞任への圧力を受けた。
1967年3月、スカルノは終身大統領の地位を剥奪された。
スハルト・新体制期
1968年3月、スハルトが第2代大統領に就任した。スハルトはスカルノ政権の外交路線を覆し、反共の姿勢を明らかにして西側諸国に接近、規制緩和と開放経済体制を旨とする経済再建策を打ち出した。
スカルノ体制から引き継いだ累積債務の処理について検討する IGGI (Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia) が1966年に結成され、以後、この債権国グループと世界銀行を中心として、インドネシアへの経済援助を討議する枠組みが形成された[34]。1967年2月にIMFへ再加盟、同年4月には世界銀行にも再加盟した。
インドネシア共産党を始めとする国内の左派勢力を一掃し、スカルノと同様に、大統領に強大な権限を付与する1945年憲法体制を引き継いだスハルトであったが、政権初期には政治的ライバルが少なくなかった。国軍内部にはなおもスカルノ派将校が存続しており、これらの将校を左遷したり粛清したりしつつ、スハルトが国軍を自らの支持母体として確立するのは1969年になってからのことだった[35]。
また、スハルトは政権の正統性を内外に示すために、1971年に総選挙を実施することを決定した。この選挙に臨むにあたって、スハルトは1969年に新しい選挙法を制定し、自らの支持母体としてゴルカルを選挙に参加させることにした。1971年7月3日に実施された選挙はゴルカルの圧勝に終わり、政党勢力の後退を決定づけた。その後、政権のイニシアチブによって既存の諸政党はインドネシア民主党か開発統一党のいずれかに統合されることになり、党としての凝集性を失い、内紛の絶えない万年野党としての地位に甘んじるほかなくなった[36]。
このようにしてスハルトは政権基盤を安定化させることに成功し、「安定と秩序」のもとで経済発展を目指す「開発独裁」を推し進めていった。
司法権の基本制度に関する1970年第14号法律により、日本軍政時代に一本化された裁判所の系列は、通常裁判所、宗教裁判所、軍事裁判所、国家行政裁判所の4系列となった[37]。
1974年4月にポルトガルで左派政権が成立し、海外植民地の放棄を宣言すると、東ティモールでも、インドネシアとの併合を主張するティモール人民民主主義協会を押さえて、完全独立派の東ティモール独立革命戦線（フレテリン）が全土を制圧し、1975年11月28日、東ティモール民主共和国として独立を宣言した。これにインドネシア政府が武力介入し、東ティモールの併合派を支援して、インドネシアとの併合を宣言させ、1976年7月17日、東チモールは27番目の州となった。その後、フレテリンはゲリラ戦に移り、地下活動を継続しながら、東ティモールの独立を目指していくことになった。
また、元々人口の多かったジャワ島とバリ島の人口過密が問題になると、これらの住民をスマトラ島、ボルネオ島（カリマンタン）、ニューギニア島、モルッカ諸島といった周辺島嶼への移住・入植を奨励した。ジャワ島の住民が各島嶼へ散らばったことによって、ジャワを中心とする統一したインドネシアの観念が広がったが、入植した各地で元の住民との軋轢が生じた。
1979年9月12日、イリアンジャヤ西部でマグニチュード6.7の強い地震があり、沿岸地域の多数の建物が水没するなどの被害が出た[38]。
スハルト政権は30年の長きにわたって続いたが、1997年にアジア通貨危機が起こって経済が危機に瀕すると国民の不満が爆発、民主化を求める市民の群れは、ジャカルタを中心に暴動に発展し、中華街が暴徒によって破壊されるなど、大混乱に陥った（翌1998年5月のジャカルタ暴動）。そのためスハルトは1998年に大統領辞任に追い込まれた。
ポスト・スハルトと民主化
ハビビ政権
スハルトから大統領職を譲られたハビビは、民主化改革を推進し、報道の自由化や政治犯の釈放、政治結社の自由化などを打ち出した[39]。
このように政治的自由化を進めるとともに、それまでの中央集権による地方統治方式も改め、地方政府に大幅な権限を譲渡する新地方行政法、中央・地方財政均衡法を制定した。また、従来地方を押さえ込んできた内務省と国軍地方師団による「領域管理」も改められた[40]。
こうした一連の地方行政改革によって、インドネシアは、経済状況の悪化や国内の政治的不安定、東ティモール問題など、多くの課題を抱えており、その評価は分かれている。
マルク諸島ではムスリムとクリスチャンの紛争が虐殺に発展[41]（マルク諸島・アンボンの宗教紛争）、アチェでは分離運動が激化して国軍が介入し内戦化（Insurgency in Aceh）、東ティモールでは住民同士あるいは住民と国軍の衝突が起き（東ティモール紛争）[42]、社会不安はかえって深まった。
東ティモールは1999年に住民投票で特別自治権提案が拒否され、独立が事実上決定したが、インドネシア治安当局が反発し武装勢力を使った破壊工作が行われ、国連平和維持活動の介入を見るに至った。その後、国連暫定統治を経て2002年に東ティモールは独立した。
ワヒド政権
1999年、議会の総選挙が行われるとスカルノの長女メガワティが率いる闘争民主党が圧勝し、国民が変革を求めていることが明らかになった。同年秋の議会による大統領選ではイスラム指導者（ウラマー）の団体ナフダトゥル・ウラマーの議長アブドゥルラフマン・ワヒドが当選し、メガワティは副大統領に収まる。
しかしワヒド大統領は国民の期待に反して混乱終結に向けてほとんど有効な手を打つことができず、2001年に罷免に追い込まれた。
メガワティ政権
かわって就任したメガワティ大統領は、アチェに対して戒厳令を敷くなど断固たる態度をとったが、経済問題に対する無策から国民の信頼を失い、2004年秋の初の国民直接投票による大統領選挙では国軍出身のユドヨノが大統領に当選した。
ユドヨノ政権
2004年12月末、スマトラ島沖地震が発生して、地震と津波によってアチェを中心としたスマトラ島沿岸が壊滅した。国際緊急救援活動が行われたが、100年ぶりとも言われる津波被害は甚大であった。翌2005年に入ってニアス島沖でも余震と思しき地震が起こり、再び被害を与えた。
ユドヨノはまず地震対策に追われることとなるが、被害が甚大であるはずのアチェには、国際機関が大規模に介入しないよう工作した。8月に政府はアチェと和平を結び、アチェ側の武装解除を条件に国軍を撤収させた。
ウィドド政権
スピアント政権
2025年8月、国会議員の高額な住宅手当などを巡ってジャカルタで反政府デモが発生。その最中、警察車両によりバイク運転手の死亡する事故があり、デモは地方にも飛び火して激しさを増した。同月30日には、西ヌサトゥンガラ州、中部ジャワ州、西ジャワ州で、地方議会の建物がデモ隊により放火されている[43]。9月に予定されていた大統領の外遊は、一度キャンセルされたものの、中国側の強い要請で訪中が実現。抗日戦争勝利80年の記念式典に出席した[44]。
脚注
- 深見純生「古代の栄光」、池端編、山川出版社、1999年、18-19頁。
- 石井・桜井、講談社、1985年、26-27頁。
- イ・ワヤン・バドリカ著、明石書店 2008年 8ページ
- 弘末雅士「交易の時代と近世国家の成立」、池端、1999年、94-95頁。
- 今永清二「ジャワのイスラム化に関する一試論」、『史学研究』177号、1987年9月、1頁。
- トメ・ピレス 『東方諸国記』、岩波書店<大航海時代叢書Ⅴ>、1966年、305頁。
- 今永、同上、9-10頁。
- 今永、同上、2頁。
- 弘末、同上、95頁。
- Robert van Niel, The Emergence of the Indonesian Elite, Dordrecht and Cinnaminson : Foris Publications, 1984.
- 永積昭「ブディ・ウトモの成立と発展 -ジャワの民族的自覚の源流- (1)・(2)」、『史学雑誌』76巻2号、1967年2月、76巻3号、1967年3月。
- 永積昭「オランダにおけるインドネシア留学生の活動（1908-17年）- 「インドネシア協会」成立前史 - 」、『アジア経済』18巻3号、1977年3月。
- サレカット・イスラーム（イスラム同盟）については次の深見純生の研究を参照。深見純生「成立期イスラム同盟に関する研究 - イスラム商業同盟からイスラム同盟へ - 」、『南方文化』2号、1975年9月、同「初期イスラム同盟 (1911-16) に関する研究 (1)・(2)」、『南方文化』3号、1976年10月、同4号、1977年7月。
- こうした方針を立てたのは、東インド社会民主主義連連盟結成に携わったオランダ人社会主義者スネーフリートの発案によるものであった。のちにスネーフリートは、中国における共産党と国民党の連携（国共合作）にも携わった。
- 永積昭 『インドネシア民族意識の形成』、東京大学出版会、1980年、229-230頁。
- 1928年10月27日から28日にかけて開催されたこの会議は、この組織が1927年に発足してから2回目の会議だった。この会議にはジャワ人青年だけでなく、東インド各地に結成された青年組織（青年スマトラ同盟、青年アンボン）やムスリム青年組織、そしてオランダから帰国した留学生たちも加わった。永積昭、1980年、254-261頁。
- Abdulkadir(2012)p.6
- Taufik.(2009)p.4
- Abdulkadir(2012)p.7
- イ・ワヤン・バドリカ著、264ページ
- この点、オランダ政府も2005年に至り、インドネシアの独立日が1949年12月27日ではなく、1945年8月17日であることを認める表明を行った（http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2005/08/18/dutch-govt-expresses-regrets-over-killings-ri.html ）。
- 首藤もと子 『インドネシア - ナショナリズム変容の政治過程』、勁草書房、1993年、127頁、脚注26。
- 深見純生・早瀬晋三「脱植民地化の道」、池端編、1999年、374頁。
- 首藤、同上、118頁。
- 深見・早瀬、354-375頁、増田与 『インドネシア現代史』、中央公論社、1971年、237-238頁。
- 首藤、同、149頁。なお、ハーグ協定ではオランダ女王の首長としての地位は象徴的なものとされ、オランダ政府にも具体的な権限はなかった。
- この1955年選挙についての分析は、Herbert Feith, The Indonesian Elections of 1955, Cornell Modern Indonesia Project, Cornell University Press, 1957、を参照。
- プルメスタ（Permesta - Perjuangan Semesta = 全体闘争）は西スマトラを中心にした反中央政府運動。1958年2月に革命政府の樹立を宣言し、これにはマシュミやインドネシア社会党の有力指導者も加わっていた。これに呼応して東インドネシアでも運動が広がった。
- 首藤、同、168-169頁。
- その後、スカルノ失脚後の1969年に西イリアンで住民投票が行われ、西イリアンはインドネシアに帰属することが決まった。
- 後に反政府側に、ラスカー・ジハードも加わった。
- スカルノが国連脱退を決意した直接の原因は、1965年1月からマレーシアが国連安保理非常任理事国になることが決まったことへの不満が挙げられる。インドネシアの国連脱退は、中国、北ベトナム、北朝鮮などに支持され、インドネシアはジャカルタ・プノンペン・ハノイ・北京・平壌を枢軸とする共産主義諸国との紐帯を強化していった。その後、インドネシアは中国からの経済・技術援助のみならず、軍事援助も受けていくことになった。永井、1986年、301-303頁。
これらに先立ち、1963年2月、インドネシアは国際オリンピック委員会 (IOC) からも離脱している。
1962年8月にジャカルタで開催された第4回アジア競技大会で、インドネシア政府がイスラエルと中華民国（台湾）の選手団にビザを発行しなかったことで、IOCがインドネシア政府を非難し、同国のオリンピック参加資格を停止するとしたため。首藤もと子「ガネフォ」、石井米雄監修『インドネシアの事典』、同朋舎出版、1991年、110頁。- 三平則夫「マクロ経済の成果」、安中章夫・三平則夫編 『現代インドネシアの政治と経済 -スハルト政権の30年- 』、アジア経済研究所、1995年、200-203頁。
- 永井、1986年、381頁。白石隆「国軍 -その世代交代と変貌- 」、安中・三平編、同上書、106-107頁。
- 大形利之「ゴルカル -スハルトと国軍のはざまで- 」、安中・三平編、同上書、146-152頁。
- Taufik.(2009)p.5
- 建物多数が海中に沈む インドネシア地震被害『朝日新聞』1979年（昭和54年）9月13日夕刊 3版 15面
- 松井和久「ハビビ新政権の特徴」、尾村敬二編 『緊急リポート スハルト体制の終焉とインドネシアの新時代』、アジア経済研究所<アジ研トピックリポート>、1998年。
- 鏡味治也「地方自治と民主化の進展 バリの事例から」、杉島敬志・中村潔編 『現代インドネシアの地方社会 ミクロロジーのアプローチ』、NTT出版、2006年、89頁。
- 笹岡正俊 『流血のマルク インドネシア軍・政治家の陰謀』、インドネシア民主化支援ネットワーク、2001年 ISBN 490664094X 。
- 高橋奈緒子ほか著 『東ティモール 奪われた独立・自由への闘い』、明石書店<明石ブックレット7>、1999年 ISBN 4750312215 。
- “インドネシア大統領、訪中取りやめ 首都デモが各地に拡大”. ニューズウィーク (2025年8月31日). 2025年9月8日閲覧。
- “インドネシア大統領、一転訪中 中止を撤回 中国側から「強い要請」”. 朝日新聞DIGITAL (2025年9月3日). 2025年9月8日閲覧。
参考文献
- Steinberg, David J., In Search of Southeast Asia : A Modern History , revised edition, Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press, 1987 ISBN 0824811100
- Ricklefs, M. C., A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300, 2nd edition, Stanford, California, Stanford University Press, 1993 ISBN 9780333576908
- 増田与 『インドネシア現代史』、中央公論社、1971年
- 和田久徳ほか編 『東南アジア現代史Ⅰ 総説・インドネシア』、山川出版社<世界現代史5>、1977年
- 永積昭 『インドネシア民族意識の形成』、東京大学出版会、1980年 ISBN 4130250027
- 石井米雄・桜井由躬雄 『東南アジア世界の形成』、講談社<ビジュアル版 世界の歴史12>、1985年 ISBN 406188512X
- 永井重信 『インドネシア現代政治史』、勁草書房、1986年 ISBN 4326398701
- 倉沢愛子 『日本占領下のジャワ農村の変容』、草思社、1992年 ISBN 4794204604
- 安中章夫・三平則夫編 『現代インドネシアの政治と経済 - スハルト政権の30年 -』、アジア経済研究所<研究双書454>、1995年 ISBN 4258044547
- インドネシア国立文書館（編著）、倉沢愛子・北野正徳（訳） 『ふたつの紅白旗 インドネシア人が語る日本占領時代』、木犀社、1996年 ISBN 4896180178（原著1988年）
- 石澤良昭・生田滋 『東南アジアの伝統と発展』、中央公論社<世界の歴史13>、1998年 ISBN 412403413X
- 池端雪浦編 『東南アジア史Ⅱ 島嶼部』、山川出版社<新版 世界各国史6>、1999年 ISBN 4634413604
- 宮城大蔵『戦後アジア秩序の模索と日本』、創文社、2004年 ISBN 4423710595
- イ・ワヤン・バドリカ著、石井和子監訳、桾沢英雄・菅原由美・田中正臣・山本肇訳『世界の教科書シリーズ20 インドネシアの歴史－インドネシア高校歴史教科書』明石書店 2008年 ISBN 978-4-7503-2842-3
- Abdulkadir Muhammad. Hukum Acara Perdata Indonesia. Cet.9. Penerbit PT Citra Aditya Bakti. Bandung. 2012年
인도네시아의 역사
| 인도네시아의 역사 |
|---|
|
| 초기 왕국 |
| 타이 왕국 (4세기 말-5세기 초경) |
| 타르마누가라 왕국 (358-723) |
| 순다왕국 (669-1579) |
| 슐리비자야 왕국 (7세기–14세기) |
| 샤이렌도라 아침 (8세기-9세기) |
| 고마타람 왕국 (752–1045) |
| 쿠디리 왕국 (1045–1221) |
| 싱가사리 왕국 (1222–1292) |
| 삼드라 파사이 왕국 (1267-1521) |
| 마자파흐트 왕국 (1293–1500) |
| 이슬람 왕조의 발흥 |
| 말라카 왕국 (1400–1511) |
| 두맥 왕국 (1475–1518) |
| 아체 왕국 (1496–1903) |
| 반텐 왕국 (1526–1813) |
| 파장 왕국 (1568년-1586) |
| 마타람 왕국 (1500년대-1700년대) |
| 유럽 식민지주의 |
| 네덜란드 동인도 회사 (1602–1800) |
| 네덜란드 영동 인도 (1800–1942) |
| 인도네시아 형성 |
| 일본 점령하 (1942–1945) |
| 독립 전쟁 (1945–1950) |
| 네덜란드 인도네시아 원탁 회의 (1949) |
| 인도네시아 독립 |
| 9월 30일 사건 (1965–1966) |
인도네시아 역사 (인도네시아)에서는 인도네시아 의 역사에 대해 설명한다.
대략 분류해도 70여 민족이 거주하는 다민족 국가인 인도네시아 공화국에 국가 정착이 태어난 것은 비교적 새롭고, 협의의 인도네시아사는 제2차 세계대전 후 독립시대에 불과하다. 원래 이 지역이 처음으로 하나의 정치체에 의해 통일된 것은 17세기 에 건설이 시작되어 20세기 초에 드디어 완성을 본 네덜란드 영동 인도 의 시대가 처음이었다.
선사 시대
이 지역에서의 인류의 활동은 순달랜드 가 육화하기 이전의 갱신세 의 시대까지 거슬러 올라간다. 순달랜드는 빙기 에 육화하고 있던 순다 육상을 말한다 [ 1 ] . 1890년 11월 말, 자바 섬 중부의 솔로 강 상류에 있는 트리닐 의 홍적층 에서, 네덜란드인 군의 , 우젠느 듀보아 가, 하악 의 뼈를 발견해, 다음 해 의 가을경에 같은 장소에서 두개골 을 발굴했다. 또한 이듬해 그 두개골 발굴 장소에서 15m 정도 상류에서 대퇴골 을 발견했다. 이들이 현재 자바 원인 으로 알려진 직립원인 의 발견이었다. 듀보아의 발견 후에도 자바 섬의 중부·동부 지방을 중심으로 석기 와 함께 원인 과 구인 의 화석인 뼈가 발견되어 구석기 시대 에 이 지역에서 인류 가 활동하고 있던 것이 확실해졌다 [ 2 ] . 그 밖에도 구석기 시대에 생존한 인류로서 메간트롭스 팔레오 재패닉스, 피테칸트롭스 일렉트스, 피테칸트롭스 솔로엔시스 등 원인의 화석이 붕가완 솔로강의 하천 부지 일대에서 발견되고 있다 [ 3 ] .
기원전 70000년경부터 기원전 14000년경에 걸친 빙기에는 순달랜드는 육지였다. 인도네시아 가 현재와 같은 다도해에 모습을 드러내는 것은 약 1만년 전에 일어난 해수면 상승으로 그동안 자바 수마트라 칼리만탄 등 을 아시아 대륙 에 연결했던 순달랜드가 수몰한 이후이다. 기원전 12000년경부터 기원전 4000년에 걸쳐 약 8000년에 걸친 해수면 상승으로 썬더랜드는 해저에 몰렸다.
기원전 2500년 부터 기원전 1500 년경 에 걸쳐 중국 서남지방에서 이주한 민족이 있어 수벼경작 을 하고 있었다.
나중에 인도네시아가 되는 동남아시아 섬부 에는 기원전 2천년기 부터 오스트로네시아어족 에 속하는 말을 말하는 말레이계 의 민족이 건너 각 섬에 정착해 갔다.
힌두화와 불교의 전래
기원전 1세기 무렵부터는 인도양 을 건너 인도 상인들이 방문하게 되어 힌두교 의 영향을 받은 독자적인 문화가 발전하기 시작하고, 5세기 무렵부터 보르네오 섬 동부에 타이 왕국 , 서부 자바 에 타르마누가라 왕국 이 번영하기 시작한다. 쿠타이 왕국은 인도 에서 말라카 해협, 필리핀 , 중국으로 가는 교역 루트에 위치했기 때문에 인도에서 선박이 기항하고 중계 무역의 이익으로 번영한 것으로 보인다.
535년 , 쿠라카타 우가 분화. 535년부터 536년의 이상 기상 현상 의 원인이 되었다.
7세기 에 자바섬 서부에 순다족 이 순다왕국 ( 669년 –1579 년 )을 건국. 7세기 부터 11세기 에 걸쳐 수마트라 섬 남부 팔렘방 을 본거로 하는 슈리비자야 왕국 ( 7세기 -13 세기 )이 말라카 해협 을 제압해, 난카이 무역을 컨트롤해 불교 문화가 번창하고 번영을 이루었다.
자바에서는 8세기 전엽에 고마타람 왕국 과 샤이레인도라 아침 ( 8세기 -9 세기 )이 건국되었다. 샤이렌도라에 의해 8세기 말부터 9세기 초에 자바 섬 중부에 건설된 보로부두르 사원 은 바닥의 한 변이 120m, 높이 약 42m라는 거대한 대승 불교 의 석조 스토퍼 이다. 캄보디아 나 베트남 남부의 챔피언 왕국 까지 원정했다는 설이 있지만, 원래 인도네시아 반도에 있던 오스트로네시아계 사람들을 가리키는 견해가 최근에는 유력하다.
고마타람 왕국은 10세기 초까지 이어져 장대한 힌두 사원인 플란바난 사원군 을 건설했다.
929년 에는 동부 자바에 쿠디리 왕국 이 건국되어 교역의 이권을 둘러싸고 달마방샤왕 이 슈리비자야의 패권에 도전했지만 결국 1016년 에 달마방샤가 살해되어 슈리비자야의 승리를 마쳤다. 그러나 1025년 에 남 인도를 지배하고 있던 쵸라 아침 의 라젠드라 1세 의 군세의 원정에서 슈리비자야는 타격을 받은 것으로 쇠퇴하게 된다.
그 후, 자바에서는, 1222년 에 켄 아로크 에 의해, 싱가사리 아침이 건국되었다. 마지막 왕 쿠르타 나가라 때, 몽골 제국 , 원조 의 사자가 왔지만, 그 얼굴에 문신을 넣고 돌려보냈기 때문에, 원래의 대한 , 황제 쿠빌라이 는 보복으로서 대군을 파견했다. 자바 섬은 원래 원정( 몽골의 자바 침공 )으로 피해를 입었지만, 이윽고 원군을 격퇴한 라덴 위자야 가 1292년 에 마자파히트 왕국 을 건국했다.
마자 파흐트는 14세기 부터 15세기 에 걸쳐 명재상 가자 마다 아래 번영했다. 1365년 에 완성시킨 고자와어의 운문 서사시 『데샤와르나나 Desawarnana(지방의 묘사)』(통칭 『나가라크르타가마 Nāgarakertāgama(성스러운 가르침에 의해 완성된 왕국))'는 자바 섬 동부를 본거로 오늘의 거의 인도네시아 전역, 필리핀 의 일부나 말레이시아 를 포함한 광대한 판도를 지배했다고 한다. 이것은 사서의 필법에 지나지 않고, 각각의 지역에 일시적으로 영향력을 행사했을 가능성은 남아 있지만, 이러한 영역을 동시에 지배한 것은 아니다 [ 요출전 ].
이슬람화 시대
동남아시아 의 왕조에서 이슬람 의 수용이 시작되는 것은 13세기 말 무렵의 수마트라 섬 북부에 있어서, 그 중심지는 파사이 왕국 이었다 [ 4 ] . 이에 앞서 이미 11세기 무렵에는 무슬림 상인의 왕래가 시작되었고, 그들은 현지의 지배자층과 밀접한 관계를 구축하고 있었다 [ 5 ] .
힌두교국 이었던 마자파흐트 왕국 에서는, 그 말기에 왕 쿠르타위자야 가, 챔퍼 로부터 무슬림의 공주를 아들의 브라위자야 의 비로로 맞이하고, 또, 국내에서는 이슬람으로의 개종 을 용인했다. 15세기에 마자파히트 왕국을 방문한 아키노 정화 는 운남 출신 의 무슬림 중국인 이었다. 쿠르타위자야는 무슬림의 경제력에 검을 치지 못하고 왕조의 권위는 떨어졌지만 이슬람화는 하지 않았다.
자바 섬 의 이슬람 국가 성립의 역사는 15세기 말에 건국된 두막 왕국 에서 시작된다. 두맥 왕국은 1478년 에 마자파흐트 왕국의 브라위자야 왕에게 종주권 을 인정시켰다. 또한, 자바 북쪽 해안의 이슬람화 된 항구시 국가 도 마자 파히트에서 이반하여 내륙부에 세력을 가진 마자 파히트 왕국은 해안을 향한 양항을 가진 북쪽 해안의 국가에 대한 영향력을 잃었다 [ 6 ] . 두맥 왕국은 16세기 전반에 마자파히트 왕국을 쓰러뜨리고 자바 섬에서 최초의 이슬람 국가가 되었다 [ 7 ] . 자바 섬 서부에서도 두막 왕국의 지원을 받은 반텐 왕국 이 이슬람을 수용하고 자바 섬 전역에서 이슬람이 침투해 갔다.
자바섬에서 활발한 포교활동을 한 것은 와리상가 (구성인)라고 불리는 수피 성자들이며, 그들은 자바섬의 각지에 부산트렌 을 만들고, 거기를 거점으로 자바인자동생을 교육하고, 민중 수준에서의 이슬람 침투에 적극적인 역할을 했다 [ 8 ] .
수마트라 섬 에서는 15세기 말에는 이미 독립하고 있던 아체 왕국 이 이슬람화하고 있어 이 해역에서의 교역의 중심지로서 발전을 이루었다. 또한 16세기 전반에는 말라카 해협에 접하는 수마트라 동해안의 대부분의 항구시가 이슬람으로 개종하고 있었다 [ 9 ] .
네덜란드 영동 인도 형성
16세기 가 되면 대항해 시대 의 유럽 세력이 향신료 무역 의 이익을 찾아 이 지역에 나타나게 되었다.
1602년 네덜란드 동인도 회사 가 자바섬으로 진출해 네덜란드에 의한 식민지화 시대가 시작된다. 네덜란드인들은 지난 세기에 이 지역에 도달했던 포르투갈 과 같은 시기에 온 경쟁자의 영국을 쫓아 이 지역에서 주도권을 잡고 오랜 시간에 걸쳐 점차 지배지를 현재 인도네시아의 영역 전체로 확대해 갔다.
그 거점으로서 1619년 에 제압된 것이 반텐 왕국 의 수도 자카르타 이며, 네덜란드인은 이 마을을 바타비아로 개명했다.
1660년부터 네덜란드 동인도 회사는 술라웨시 섬 의 마카사르 서해안에서 고와 왕국 과의 전쟁에 돌입했고, 1669년 술라웨시 섬 지배에 관한 본가야 조약 이 체결되었다. 1665년부터 1667년에 걸친 제2차 영란 전쟁 에서 반다 제도 의 란섬 ( 향신료 무역 )과 뉴네델란트 식민지 의 뉴암스테르담 ( 모피 무역 )의 자치권을 교환하여 획득하여 향신료 무역( 육두구 , 정향 등)의 독점을 도모했다. 영국은 이미 종자를 꺼내고 있어 1815 년경 부터 모리셔스 나 그레나다 등에서 농장을 시작하면 향신료는 흔한 상품이 되어 반다 제도의 가치는 상대적으로 내려가게 되었다.
18세기 에는 3차에 걸친 자바 계승 전쟁( 제1차 자바 계승 전쟁 (1704년~1708년), 제2차 자바 계승 전쟁 (1719년~1723년), 제3차 자바 계승 전쟁 (1749년~1757년)과 화교 학살 사건 (1740년)에 의해 마타람 왕국 이 4분할되어 네덜란드 동인도 회사의 보호하에 통합되면 자바 섬 전역이 그 지배하에 놓여졌다. 1825년에는 술탄가의 디포누고로 가 네덜란드에 반란을 일으키지만, 1830년에 진압되고 있다( 자바 전쟁 ).
19세기 에 들어서면 나폴레옹 전쟁 에 의한 네덜란드 본국의 혼란도 있어 일시 지배력이 약해지지만, 네덜란드 동인도 회사가 해산되어 네덜란드 본국에 의한 식민지 직접 통치가 시작되어, 네덜란드인에 의한 농장 경영이 퍼져 경제적인 착취는 강해져 갔다.
1815년 5월 5일 , 숨바와 섬 의 탄 보라산이 대분화 . 이듬해 여름이 없는 해라 고 불리는 이상 기상에 휩쓸렸다.
파 드리 전쟁 ( 1821-1837 ) . 1824년 에 영란협약을 체결했지만, 이 조약이 아체전쟁 ( 1873년 -1913 년 )의 도화선이 되어, 네덜란드가 승리해 수마트라 섬의 지배권도 확립해, 포르투갈령 티몰 ( 현동 티몰 )을 제외하고 동인도 제도는 모두 네덜란드령이다.
1883년 8월 26일 , 쿠라카타우가 분화( 1883년의 쿠라카타우의 분화 ).
인도네시아 형성
인도네시아 민족주의 운동의 전개
20세기 초에 네덜란드 는 기존 식민지 정책 을 전환해 현지 주민들의 복지 향상과 본국에서 식민지 정부에 권한 위양을 진행할 방침을 취했다. 전시대의 순익정책에 의해 식민지에서 네덜란드 본국에 막대한 부가 가져온 반면, 가혹한 착취와 '우민화 정책' 하에서 현지 주민에 의한 초등교육 의 기회나 산업의 부흥이 제한되어 그 결과 식민지의 현 지주민의 빈곤화가 진행된 것을 반성하고, 지금까지 보다 많은 혜택을 현지 주민에게 가져오는 것으로, 식민지에 있어서의 경제의 부흥을 목표로 하는 의도로 시작된 것이 「윤리 정책」이라고 총칭되는 일련의 시책이다.
이에 따라 현지 주민에게는 초등교육의 기회가 주어졌으며, 부모 네덜란드적인 일부 주민엘리트의 자제에게는 네덜란드어로 의 전문교육( 행정학 , 경제학 , 의학 등)의 기회도 주어졌다. 이들 중 상당수는 식민지 정부의 말단을 담당하는 하층 행정관과 현지 주민의 복지 향상을 담당하는 의사가 되어 네덜란드인 하에서 식민지 통치의 운영의 일익을 담당했다 [ 10 ] . 그러나 이러한 일부 부모 네덜란드 엘리트를 제외한 현지 주민들은 그 후에도 초등교육 이상의 것을 받을 기회는 주어지지 않았다.
그렇게 네덜란드어 로 교육받아 동인도에 창설된 대학 이나 유학을 허락받은 네덜란드 본국의 대학에서 배운 친네덜란드적인 일부 학생들 중에서 민족의 독립을 뜻하는 사람들이 나타났다. 그 초기에는 자바의 의학교에서 배우는 학생들을 중심으로 1908년 에 결성된 부디 우토모 ( 자바어 로 '최고의 덕'을 의미함)와 같이 교육을 통해 자바인의 사회적 지위를 향상시키려는 온건한 활동이 시작되었다 [ 11 ] . 또한 종주국 네덜란드에서도 동인도 출신 학생들이 동인도협회(Indische Vereniging)를 결성하여 출신지방의 틀을 넘은 동인도의 민족적 일체감에 눈을 떴다 [ 12 ] .
1911년 에 결성된 사레캇 이슬람 (이슬람 동맹)은 당초 중국 혁명 의 진전에 의해 동인도에서의 상업 활동을 활발히 한 화교 상인에 맞서 자바의 바틱 상인이 결성한 것이었지만 조직의 주도권이 상인층에서 네덜란드어로 교육을 받은 지식인층으로 옮겨가자 자바 섬 밖으로까지 지부를 결성하여 동인도 전체에 퍼지는 최초의 대중조직이 되었다. 사레캇 이슬람의 지도자 초크 로아미노트 는 각지에서 집회를 열고 열기가 담긴 연설과 카리스마성으로 열광적인 인기를 얻었다 [ 13 ] .
제1차 세계대전 을 거쳐 살레컷 이슬람 회원수는 200만명을 넘어 독립과 사회주의 를 내걸게 되었다. 이처럼 조직의 성격이 바뀐 요인으로 러시아 혁명 의 성공도 꼽힌다. 1920년 에는 아시아 최초의 공산당으로 인도네시아 공산당 (전신은 1914년 스마랑 에서 결성된 동인도 사회민주주의 동맹 )이 성립해 코민테른 에 가맹했다. 인도네시아 공산당은 원주민당원을 살레컷 이슬람에 가입시켜 그 조직 내부에서 공산당의 영향력을 강화해 나갈 방침을 세웠다 [ 14 ] . 그 결과 사레캇 이슬람 내의 주류파와 공산파의 대립이 격화되어 민족주의 운동의 조류가 분열되어 대중의 운동을 떠나게 되었다 [ 15 ] . 살레캣 이슬람에서 배제된 인도네시아 공산당은 그 지방지부가 1926년 부터 1927년 에 걸쳐 산발적으로 일으킨 무장봉기에 의해 식민지 정부에 의한 탄압을 초래했다. 당의 지도자는 해외로 도망하거나 동인도에 잠복하는 등 했기 때문에 이후의 민족주의 운동은 스카르노 등이 1927년에 결성한 인도네시아 국민당 등 세속주의를 내걸는 민족주의 단체에 의해 맡겨져 갔다.
전쟁 전 인도네시아 민족주의 운동의 정점이 된 것은 1928년 10월 27일 에 개최된 인도네시아 청년회의에서 ' 청년의 맹세 ' 채택이었다 [ 16 ] .
- 우리 인도네시아 청소년 남녀는 인도네시아 국가라는 단 하나의 조국을 가지고 있음을 확인합니다.
- 우리 인도네시아 청소년 남녀는 인도네시아 민족이라는 단 하나의 민족임을 확인합니다
- 우리 인도네시아 청소년 남녀는 인도네시아어 라는 통일 언어를 사용합니다.
여기에서 독립을 요구하는 사람들은 네덜란드 영동 인도 의 국명으로 ' 인도네시아 '의 이름을 선택하고 이 지역에 사는 다양한 민족을 인도네시아인으로 통일하고 독립을 달성하겠다는 결의를 내외에 제시한 것이다.
제2차 세계대전과 일본군정
태평양전쟁 ( 대동아전쟁 ) 도중 1942년 2월 일본군 의 침공으로 네덜란드 식민지 지배는 붕괴되었다. 동인도를 점령한 일본 은 일본 육군의 이마무라 균 중장에 의해 전역을 군정 지배하에 두었다. 석유를 비롯한 천연자원 의 확보를 위해 군정에 현지 주민의 협력을 잡을 필요가 있었던 적도 있어, 이마무라 중장에 의한 군정하에서는 인도네시아인에 대한 완화 정책을 기본으로 하고, 대동아정략지도 대강 에 근거해 동인도를 대일본제국영토로 하는 것이 결정되었다 [ 요출전 ].
그 때문에, 네덜란드에 의해 잡혀, 유형처에 있던 스카르노 나 하타 등의 민족주의 운동의 지도자를 해방해, 또 나프다투르·우라마 등 이슬람계 제단체의 종교 지도자들에게 협력을 요청해, 그들의 지도력을 이용해, 물적·인적 자원의 조달을 도모하려고 했다. 한편 민족주의운동의 지도자들도 군정당국에 의해 주어진 지위를 활용하여 민중에게 말을 걸어 그 민족의식을 고무했다 [ 요출전 ]. 그러한 활동에 의해, 스카르노 등은 민족의 지도자로서의 지위를 확립해 갔다.
이와 함께 일본은 네덜란드 지배하에서 박해된 이슬람교의 존재를 인정하고 이슬람교도에 의한 활동을 자유화한 것 외에 네덜란드가 실시하고 있던 네덜란드어에 의한 초등교육, 고등교육으로 바뀌어 인도네시아어와 일본어 에 의한 교육 을 실시했다 ..
1942년 4월 일본은 그때까지 네덜란드령 동인도에 설치되어 있던 인종별 여러 종류의 제1심 법원 중 지방법원(Tihoo Hooin(지방법원)=Landraad)만을 남기고 일화하고, 그 외는 폐지 했다 . [ 17 ] 유럽인 전용 소송법도 무효가 되었다 [ 19 ] .
또한 군정당국은 동인도의 병력 부족을 해소하기 위해 병보 와 향토방위의용군 을 설립하여 현지 주민의 자제들에게 군사교련 을 실시했다. 그 훈련은 가혹을 다했지만, 이들 군사교육을 받은 청년들이 다음 독립전쟁 에서 네덜란드와 싸우는 인도네시아의 군사조직 장교단을 형성해 나가게 되었다 [ 요출전 ].
임펄 작전 실패로 전황이 악화되면서 일본은 인도네시아의 독립을 인정할 방침으로 변경했다. 그때까지는 대동아회의에 인도네시아 대표를 초대하지 않는 등 제국영토에 편입을 전제로 한 방침을 취하고 있었지만, 1944년 9월에는 인도네시아 국기의 게양과 국가 의 제창을 해금한 것 외에 1945년 3월에는 독립준비위원회를 발족시켰다. 이 위원회는 같은 해 8 월 19일 에 스카 르노 와 하타, 라지만에 의해 독립 선언한다는 방침을 결정하고, 군정 당국이나 일본 정부도 이를 승인했다 ..
독립 전쟁
그러나, 1945년 8월 15일 에 일본이 네덜란드를 포함한 연합 국군 에 항복해, 염원의 독립이 반고가 될 것을 두려워한 스카르노 등 민족주의자는 같은 달 17일에 자카르타의 푸간사안 티무르 거리 56번지의 스카르노 저택 앞에서 인도네시아 독립을 선언 하고(독립 선언문의 날짜는 황기를 사용하고 있다), 스카르노가 대통령으로 선출되었다. 독립 선언은 다른 민족에 의한 인도네시아의 민족과 국가에 대한 모든 형태의 식민지 지배와 독립적으로 자유롭게 된다는 성명이었다 [ 20 ] .
1945년 8월 18일 , 인도네시아는 헌법을 제정·공포·시행하고, 그 경과규정 제2조에 있어서 일본군 정기에 유효했던 법제도는 계속 유효하다고 규정되었다 [ 19 ] . 즉, 일본군의 침공 전 네덜란드령 동인도의 법제도로 돌아가지 않았다 [ 21 ] .
그러나 네덜란드는 이 독립 선언과 스카르노의 대통령 취임을 무효로 하고, 독립을 목표로 하는 스카르노나 하타 등의 민족주의자나 뵈트모 등의 군인과, 일본군의 무장 해제를 실시한 영국군, 및 식민지 지배 재개를 기원해 돌아온 네덜란드군 사이에서 4년에 걸쳐 전개되어 인도
전전의 네덜란드에 의한 격렬한 착취를 배제하고 독립을 목표로 하는 사람들의 전의는 높고, 도검, 대나무 창, 동봉, 독살, 함정 등의 무기 외, 항복 후에 일본군이 떠나 네덜란드 이나 영국의 관리하에 놓인 무기고에서 빼앗거나 항복을 깨끗하게 하지 않는 일본군인의 일부가 횡류한 무기·탄약으로 무장해 다양한 수단으로 연합군을 괴롭혔다. 또한 독립파에는 일본군정하에서 독립파에 대한 군사교련을 하고 있던 일본군인이 2000명 더해져 훈련이나 교육, 선무 에 활약했고, 그 절반은 전사했지만 전투에 참여한 사람도 있었다.
이 전쟁의 결과, 피폐 소모의 극에 이른 네덜란드군은 드디어 재식민지화를 포기하고, 1949년 12월 유엔의 알선으로 덴하그 에서 행해진 네덜란드-인도네시아 원탁 회의 (통칭, 헤이그 원탁 회의 ) 에 의해 네덜란드는 정식으로 인도네시아 연방 공화국 ( Republik
독립 후 인도네시아
의회제민주주의기
1949년 12월 27일 , 헤이그 협정의 서명식이 행해졌으며, 이날 주권 은 네덜란드 에서 인도네시아 연방공화국 으로 위양되었다. 이 연방 공화국은 16개국・ 지역 , 구성 국 지역 은 과 같다 : , 중부 자바 자치국 , 방카 자치국 , 빌리톤 자치국 , 리아우 자치국 , 서 칼리만탄 특별 지역 ) 대다 약 자치국 ( , 반잘 지역 , 동남 칼리만탄 , 동칼리만탄 판 그 중 인도네시아 공화국은 자바 의 약 절반과 수마트라 의 대부분을 가지고 있으며, 인구에서도 연방공화국 전체에서 4600만명 중 3100만명을 차지하고 있었다 [ 23 ] .
인도네시아 공화국 이외의 구성국의 대부분은 독립전쟁 중에 네덜란드가 스스로를 이기기 위해 현지 지배자층과 맺어 만든 괴뢰국가 였다. 그러나 독립전쟁 말기에는 이들 국가에서도 '네덜란드 떨어져'가 진행되고 있어 정치 지도자들 사이에서도 네덜란드보다 인도네시아 공화국과 협조하는 편이 현실적이라고 생각되게 되었다 [ 24 ] . 자치국의 하나였던 파순당국의 반둥 에서, 원란인군 대위 웨스 텔 링크 의 사병 Legioen van Ratu Adil (APRA)이 파괴 활동을 실시하는 등의 역행하는 흐름도 있었지만( en:APRA coup d'état ), 1950년 1월, 이 파순단국은 해산해 같은 해 3월에는 다른 11개국이 이를 따랐고, 최종적으로는 같은 해 8월 15일 연방공화국은 해산되어 나머지 나라도 포함한 단일 인도네시아 공화국이 출범했다 [ 25 ] . 이날 인도네시아 공화국 잠정헌법(이하 1950년 헌법 으로 약칭한다)을 공포·시행해 의회제민주주의 하에 국정을 운영해 나가게 되었다.
헤이그 협정에 따라 인도네시아 연방 공화국과 네덜란드는 네덜란드 여왕을 수장으로 하는 네덜란드-인도네시아 연합 ( Uni Belanda-Indonesia )을 형성하겠다고 규정되었지만, 1951 년 1 월 에는 인도네시아 국민당 을 비롯한 제정당이 연합 파기를 요구 1954년 8월, 이 네덜란드와의 연합 국가의 해소가 선언되었다.
1956년 에는 헤이그 협정을 정식으로 파기하고 서쪽에 속하는 네덜란드와 결별하여 비동맹 중립 국가로 걸어가는 것을 목표로 했다. 게다가 1957년 12월에는 식민지 시대부터 계속 축적했던 스스로의 이권을 사수하기 위해 인도네시아 국내에 남아 있던 네덜란드인을 추방했다.
인도네시아는 네덜란드에 의한 지역의 통합을 그대로 이어받았기 때문에 민족 과 문화 에 통일적인 정체성을 요구하는 것은 어려웠다. 1955년 9월 29일 에 실시된 인도네시아에서 국민 의회 의원 선출의 첫 총선(및 12월 15일 제헌 의회 의원 선거)에는 다양한 지지 모체를 가진 정당이 참가하여 3900만명 이상의 인도네시아 국민이 투표를 했다. 그 결과는 인도네시아 국민당 , 마슈미 , NU 나프다투르 우라마르당 , 인도네시아 공산당 의 4대 정당이 표를 나누어 복잡한 정치적 대항축을 형성했다. 민족 · 종교 · 이데올로기 를 달리하는 정당끼리 타협의 여지는 적었고, 의회는 공전하고 이 시기의 내각 은 모두 단명으로 끝났다 [ 27 ] .
또 독립전쟁기 를 통해 행정이나 국군 내부에서는 권력의 분산화가 진행되어 중앙정부 혹은 군중추로부터의 통제는 반드시 지방에 미치지 못했다. 이슬람 국가의 수립을 목표로 하는 아체주 의 다우드 브루 에의 반란은 독립 전쟁의 도중부터 1965년 까지 계속되어 서자바의 세카르마지 마리잔 카르토스윌요 의 다르르 이슬람 운동 1962년 총살), 남 술라웨시주의 카할 무자칼 의 반란, 그리고 1956년 부터 1958년 까지 계속된 서 수마트라 의 프르메스타의 반란 및 같은 해부터 1961년 까지 계속해서 활동한 인도네시아 공화국 혁명 정부에 28 ] 등 인도네시아 는
이 당시의 스카르노는 1955년 에 개최된 제1회 아시아·아프리카 회의 (반둥 회의)를 주최하는 등 국제 정치의 장면에서는 비동맹 제국의 리더로서 각광을 받고 있었지만, 국내 정치에서는 대통령에 강대한 권한을 주지 않는 1950년 헌법 하에 9위 를 차지 했다 .
의회제민주주의의 기능부전과 정당정치가들의 부패를 목격하고 스카르노는 국군사령관 스딜만의 협력을 얻어 1959년 7월 제헌의회 해산과 대통령에게 강대한 권한을 주는 1945년 헌법으로 복귀를 선언했다.
수카르노·지도되는 민주주의기
1945년 헌법을 부활시킨 스카르노 가 스스로의 리더십을 유지하려고 했던 이 시기, 활발히 주창하고 있던 것이 ' 나사콤 NASAKOM'이라는 슬로건이다. 이는 민족주의 (Nasionalisme), 종교 (Agama), 공산주의 (Komunisme)의 각 세력에 지지를 호소하고, 거국 일치하여 국난을 극복하는 것을 목표로 했다.
'민족독립의 아버지'로서의 지위, 민중을 열광시켰다는 변설의 재와 카리스마성을 가지면서, 스카르노는 자신의 특정의 지지 기반을 가지고 있지 않았다. 또 독립 후부터 내분을 계속해 온 인도네시아 국군 은 나스티온 등에 의한 합리화에 의해 조직의 구심력을 높이는 데 성공하고 있으며, 스카르노에게 국군은 정치적 위협을 주는 존재가 되고 있었다. 이를 견제하기 위해, 스카르노는 인도네시아 공산당 에 접근하여 그 대중동원력을 의지했다. 국군과 공산당은 대립관계에 있어, 스카르노는 그 양자의 조정역으로서 행동함으로써, 자신의 리더십을 유지하려고 했다.
1961년 12월, 네덜란드의 식민지로 유지되고 있던 뉴기니 섬 서부( 이리안 자야 )에 「서일리안 해방 작전」으로서 공수 부대를 파견해, 네덜란드와의 전투의 거구 이것을 점령했다. 국제연합 의 중재 결과 정전, 유엔의 잠정 통치 후, 1963년 5월, 그 시정권이 인도네시아로 이관되었다 [ 30 ] . 이 병합에 반대하는 자유 파푸아 운동 이나 en:National Committee for West Papua 가 인도네시아 정부에 반기를 휘두르며 파푸아 분쟁 ( 1963년 -현재)이 일어났다 [ 31 ] .
또, 1963년 에 말라야 연방 이 북보르네오 (현재의 사바주 )를 영국 으로부터 양도해 말레이시아 가 건국되면, 스카르노는 이것을 영국에 의한 신식민지주의 의 나타난다고 비난해, 「대결 정책」을 선언했다. 인도네시아는 '말레이시아 분쇄'를 슬로건으로 내세워 말레이시아령에 침입하는 등 일촉 즉발 사태가 됐다. 이듬해 영유를 주장하는 필리핀 도 포함한 3자가 도쿄 에서 회담하는 등의 외교적 해결이 모색됐지만, 최종적으로 현상 유지로 결착하기 위해서는 후술하는 스할트의 정권 장악을 기다려야 했다.
이 대결정책에 의해 인도네시아는 미국 과 IMF 로부터의 경제원조를 정지하고 국제사회로부터 고립해 갔다. 수카르노는 빠르게 중국 에 접근한다.
1965년 1월 7일 유엔 을 탈퇴했다 [ 32 ] .
1965년의 독립기념일(8월 17일)에는 세계은행 과 IMF 로부터의 탈퇴도 선언했다 [ 33 ] . 그렇게 대외정책이 진행되고 있는 동안에도 인도네시아 국내의 경제상태는 악화되었고, 인플레이션 에 의한 물자 상승은 민중의 생활을 괴롭혔다.
이런 상황에 국군 주류파와 일부 정당 정치인, 경제 테크노크라트 등은 위기감을 높여 수카르노와 공산당에 대한 불만이 높아졌다. 이처럼 긴장한 정치환경 속에서 발생한 것이 9월 30일 사건 이었다. 이 사건은 1965년 9월 30일 심야부터 다음 미명에 걸쳐 공산당 심파의 국군부대와 공산당 산하의 조직이 국군 간부의 6장군을 살해한 것에 끝을 발한다. 육군 전략 예비군 사령관이었던 수하르트 가 이를 바로 진압했기 때문에 좌파 세력에 의한 정권 탈취는 실패해 쿠데타 미수 사건으로 끝났다. 공산당에 어깨 넣고 있던 수카르노는 괴로운 입장에 몰려 사태를 회복하기 위한 일체의 권한을 스하르트에게 주게 되었다. 이에 따라 수하르트는 공산당원과 그 심파를 살해, 구속하고 국내 좌파 세력을 물리적으로 해체했다. 동남아시아 에서 최대 규모를 자랑한 인도네시아 공산당이 괴멸한 것은 국내 정치뿐만 아니라 냉전 기에 있어서 이 지역의 세력도를 일변시켰다.
1966년 9월 인도네시아는 유엔으로 복귀했다. 그 후, 스카르노는 사건에의 관여를 의심되는 엄격한 입장에 몰려들어 국군이 선동하는 반스카르노의 민중운동에 의해 사임에 대한 압력을 받았다.
1967년 3월, 스카르노는 종신 대통령의 지위를 박탈당했다.
수하르트·신체제기
1968년 3월, 스할트가 제2대 대통령으로 취임했다. 수하르트 는 스카르노 정권의 외교 노선을 뒤집어 반공의 자세를 밝혀 서쪽 국가에 접근, 규제 완화와 개방 경제 체제를 취지로 하는 경제 재건책을 내세웠다.
스카르노 체제에서 인계한 누적채무 의 처리를 검토하는 IGGI (Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia)가 1966년 에 결성되었으며, 이후 이 채권국 그룹과 세계은행을 중심으로 인도네시아에 대한 경제원조 를 토의하는 틀이 형성되었다 [ 34 ] . 1967년 2월에 IMF에 재가맹, 같은 해 4월에는 세계은행에도 재가맹했다.
인도네시아 공산당 을 비롯한 국내 좌파 세력을 일소하고, 스카르노와 마찬가지로 대통령에게 강대한 권한을 부여하는 1945년 헌법 체제를 이어받은 스하르트였지만, 정권 초기에는 정치적 라이벌이 적지 않았다. 국군 내부에는 여전히 스카르노파 장교가 존속하고 있어, 이들 장교를 좌천하거나 숙청하거나 하면서, 스할트가 국군을 스스로의 지지 모체로서 확립하는 것은 1969년 이 된 이후였다 [ 35 ] .
또한 수하르트는 정권의 정통성을 내외로 보여주기 위해 1971년 총선을 실시하기로 결정했다. 이 선거에 임함에 있어서, 스할트는 1969년에 새로운 선거법을 제정해, 자신의 지지 모체로서 골칼 을 선거에 참가시키기로 했다. 1971년 7월 3일 에 실시된 선거는 골칼의 압승으로 끝나 정당 세력의 후퇴를 결정했다. 그 후 정권의 이니셔티브에 의해 기존의 제정당은 인도네시아 민주당 이나 개발 통일당 중 하나에 통합되게 되어 당으로서의 응집성을 잃고, 내분의 끊임없는 만년 야당으로서의 지위에 달라붙을 수밖에 없어졌다 [ 36 ] .
이처럼 수하르트는 정권 기반을 안정화시키는 데 성공했으며 '안정과 질서' 아래 경제발전을 목표로 하는 ' 개발독재 '를 추진해 나갔다.
사법권의 기본제도에 관한 1970년 제14호 법률에 따라 일본 군정시대에 단일화된 법원의 계열은 통상 법원, 종교재판소, 군사재판소, 국가행정법원의 4계열이 되었다 [ 37 ] .
1974년 4월에 포르투갈 에서 좌파 정권이 성립해 해외 식민지 포기를 선언하면 동 티모르 에서도 인도네시아와의 병합을 주장하는 티모르 인민민주주의 협회를 잡아 완전 독립파의 동 티모르 독립 혁명 전선 (프레테린)이 전토를 제압하고, 1975년 11월 28일 동티모르 민주공화국으로서 독립을 선언했다. 이에 인도네시아 정부가 무력 개입 하여 동티모르의 병합파를 지원해 인도네시아와의 병합을 선언하게 되었고, 1976년 7월 17일 동티모르는 27번째 주가 되었다. 그 후 프레테린은 게릴라전 으로 옮겨 지하활동을 계속하면서 동티모르의 독립을 목표로 하게 되었다.
또, 원래 인구가 많았던 자바섬 과 발리섬 의 인구 과밀 이 문제가 되면, 이들 주민을 수마트라섬 , 보르네오섬 (칼리만탄), 뉴기니섬 , 모르카 제도 등의 주변섬에의 이주·입식을 장려했다. 자바 섬의 주민이 각 섬에 흩어진 것에 의해, 자바를 중심으로 하는 통일한 인도네시아의 관념이 퍼졌지만, 입식한 각지에서 원래의 주민과의 갈등이 생겼다.
1979년 9월 12일 , 이리안자야 서부에서 매그니튜드 6.7의 강한 지진이 있어 해안지역의 다수의 건물이 수몰하는 등의 피해가 나왔다 [ 38 ] .
수하르트 정권은 30년의 장기에 걸쳐 계속되었지만, 1997년 에 아시아 통화 위기 가 일어나 경제가 위기에 처하면 국민의 불만이 폭발, 민주화 요구하는 시민의 무리는, 자카르타를 중심으로 폭동으로 발전해, 중화 가 가 폭도에 의해 파괴되는 등 대혼란 ). 그 때문에 수하르트는 1998년 대통령 사임 에 몰렸다.
포스트 수하르트와 민주화
하비비 정권
수하르트로부터 대통령직을 양도한 하비비 는 민주화 개혁을 추진하고 보도의 자유화와 정치범의 석방, 정치결사의 자유화 등을 내세웠다 [ 39 ] .
이처럼 정치적 자유화를 추진함과 동시에 그동안 중앙집권에 의한 지방통치 방식도 바꾸어 지방정부에 대폭적인 권한을 양도하는 신지방행정법, 중앙·지방재정균형법을 제정했다. 또한 기존 지방을 밀어 넣은 내무성과 국군 지방 사단에 의한 「영역 관리」도 개정되었다 [ 40 ] .
이러한 일련의 지방 행정 개혁에 의해 인도네시아는 경제 상황의 악화나 국내의 정치적 불안정, 동티모르 문제 등 많은 과제를 안고 있어 그 평가는 나뉘어 있다.
마르크 제도 에서는 무슬림 과 그리스도인 의 분쟁이 학살로 발전 [ 41 ] ( 마르크 제도·암봉의 종교 분쟁 ), 아체 에서는 분리운동이 격화되어 국군이 개입해 내전화( Insurgency in Aceh ) , 동 티모르 에서는 동민 혹은 주민과 분쟁 ] , 사회 불안은 오히려 깊어졌다.
동티모르는 1999년 주민투표에서 특별자치권 제안이 거부되어 독립이 사실상 결정했지만 인도네시아 치안당국이 반발해 무장세력을 이용한 파괴공작이 이루어져 유엔평화유지활동 의 개입을 보게 되었다. 그 후 유엔 잠정통치를 거쳐 2002년 동티모르는 독립 했다.
와히드 정권
1999년 의회 총선이 열리면 스카르노 장녀 메가와티 가 이끄는 투쟁민주당 이 압승해 국민이 변혁을 요구하고 있는 것으로 밝혀졌다. 같은 해 가을 의회에 의한 대통령 선거에서는 이슬람 지도자( 우라마르 )의 단체 나프 다투르 우라마르 의 의장 압둘라프만 와히드 가 당선해, 메가와티는 부대통령에 들어간다.
그러나 와히드 대통령은 국민의 기대에 반해 혼란 종결을 향해 거의 유효한 손을 칠 수 없어 2001년 파면에 몰렸다.
메가와티 정권
대신 취임한 메가와티 대통령은 아체에 대해 계엄령을 깔는 등 단호한 태도를 취했지만 경제문제에 대한 무책으로 국민의 신뢰를 잃고 2004년 가을 첫 국민 직접 투표에 의한 대선에서 국군 출신 유도요노 가 대통령에 당선됐다.
유도요노 정권
2004년 12월 말 수마트라 섬 앞바다 지진이 발생하여 지진 과 해일 에 의해 아체를 중심으로 한 수마트라 섬 연안이 괴멸했다. 국제 긴급 구호 활동이 이루어졌지만 100년 만이라고도 하는 쓰나미 피해는 엄청났다. 이듬해 2005년 들어 니어스 섬 앞바다에서도 여진이라고 생각해 지진이 일어나 다시 피해를 주었다.
유도요노는 먼저 지진 대책에 쫓기는 것이지만, 피해가 심각해야 할 아체에는 국제기구가 대규모로 개입하지 않도록 공작했다. 8월 정부는 아체와 평화를 맺고 아체 측의 무장 해제를 조건으로 국군을 철수시켰다.
위도드 정권
스피언트 정권
2025년 8월, 국회의원의 고액의 주택수당 등을 둘러싸고 자카르타에서 반정부 시위가 발생. 그 가운데 경찰 차량에 의해 오토바이 운전사의 사망하는 사고가 있어 시위는 지방에도 날아오르고 격렬함을 늘렸다. 같은 달 30일에는 서쪽 누사툰가라주 , 중부자바주 , 서자바주 에서 지방의회 건물이 시위대에 의해 방화 되고 있다 [ 43 ] . 9월에 예정되어 있던 대통령의 외유는, 한 번 취소되었지만, 중국 측의 강한 요청으로 방중이 실현. 항일전쟁 승리 80년 기념식전에 참석했다 [ 44 ] .
History of Indonesia
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The history of Indonesia has been shaped by its geographic position, natural resources, a series of human migrations and contacts, wars and conquests, as well as by trade, economics and politics. Indonesia is an archipelagic country of 17,000 to 18,000 islands stretching along the equator in Southeast Asia and Oceania.[1][2] The country's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade; trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history. The area of Indonesia is populated by peoples of various migrations, creating a diversity of cultures, ethnicities, and languages. The archipelago's landforms and climate significantly influenced agriculture and trade, and the formation of states. The boundaries of the state of Indonesia match the 20th-century borders of the Dutch East Indies.
Fossilised remains of Homo erectus, popularly known as "Java Man", and their tools suggest the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited at least 1.5 million years ago. Austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population, are thought to have originally been from Taiwan and arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE. From the 7th century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished, bringing Hindu and Buddhist influences with it. The agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties subsequently thrived in inland Java. The last significant non-Muslim kingdom, the Hindu Majapahit kingdom, flourished from the late 13th century, and its influence stretched over much of Indonesia. The earliest evidence of Islamised populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra; other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, which became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century.[3] Europeans such as the Portuguese arrived in Indonesia from the 16th century seeking to monopolise the sources of valuable nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku. In 1602, the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie or VOC) and became the dominant European power by 1610. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies under government control. By the early 20th century, Dutch dominance extended to the current boundaries. The Japanese invasion and occupation in 1942–1945 during WWII ended Dutch rule, and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, nationalist leader Sukarno declared independence and became president. The Netherlands tried to reestablish its rule, but a bitter armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure the Dutch formally recognised Indonesian independence.
An attempted coup in 1965 led to a violent army-led anti-communist purge in which over half a million people were killed. General Suharto politically outmanoeuvred President Sukarno, and became president in March 1968. His New Order administration was marked by widespread corruption, nepotism, human rights abuses, and the centralization of power, with political dissent brutally suppressed and the media tightly controlled. Economic policies disproportionately benefited elites, while poverty and inequality persisted for much of his rule. In the late 1990s, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian financial crisis, which led to popular protests and Suharto's resignation on 21 May 1998. The Reformasi era following Suharto's resignation has led to a strengthening of democratic processes, including a regional autonomy program, the secession of East Timor, and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political instability, social unrest, corruption, natural disasters, and terrorism remained problems in the 2000s, but the economy has performed strongly since 2007. Although relations between different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problems in some areas.
Prehistory
In 2007, an analysis of cut marks on two bovid bones found in Sangiran, showed them to have been made 1.5 to 1.6 million years ago by clamshell tools. [citation needed] This is the oldest evidence for the presence of early humans in Indonesia. Fossilised remains of Homo erectus in Indonesia, popularly known as the "Java Man" were first discovered by the Dutch anatomist Eugène Dubois at Trinil in 1891, and are at least 700,000 years old. Other H. erectus fossils of a similar age were found at Sangiran in the 1930s by the anthropologist Gustav Heinrich Ralph von Koenigswald, who in the same time period also uncovered fossils at Ngandong alongside more advanced tools, re-dated in 2011 to between 550,000 and 143,000 years old.[4][5][6][7] In 1977 another H. erectus skull was discovered at Sambungmacan.[8] In 2010, stone tools were discovered on Flores, dating from 1 million years ago. These are the earliest remains implying human seafaring technology.[9] The earliest evidence of artistic activity ever found, in the form of diagonal etchings made with the use of a shark's tooth, was detected in 2014 on a 500,000-year-old fossil of a clam found in Java in the 1890s, associated with H. erectus.[10]
In 2003, on the island of Flores, fossils of a 1.1 m (3 ft 7 in) tall hominid dated between 74,000 and 13,000 years old were discovered, much to the surprise of the scientific community. This newly discovered hominid was named the "Flores Man", or Homo floresiensis.[11][12] A phylogenetic analysis published in 2017 suggests that H. floresiensis was descended from the same ancestor as Homo habilis.[13] H. floresiensis would thus represent a previously unknown and very early migration out of Africa. The Homo floresiensis skeletal material is dated from 60,000 to 100,000 years ago; stone tools recovered alongside the skeletal remains were from archaeological horizons ranging from 50,000 to 190,000 years ago.[14]
The Indonesian archipelago was formed during the thaw after the Last Glacial Maximum. Early humans travelled by sea and spread from mainland Asia eastward to New Guinea and Australia. Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago.[15] In 2011, evidence was uncovered in neighbouring East Timor, showing that 42,000 years ago, these early settlers had high-level maritime skills, and by implication the technology needed to make ocean crossings to reach Australia and other islands, as they were catching and consuming large numbers of big deep sea fish such as tuna.[16]
In November 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the then-oldest known figurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown animal, in the cave of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the Indonesian island of Borneo.[17][18] The discovery of the cave paintings is important within human cultural history, as it adds to the view that cave art was created simultaneously in Indonesia and Europe.[19] Francesco d'Errico, an expert in prehistoric art at the University of Bordeaux, described the investigation as a "major archaeological discovery".[20] On 11 December 2019, a team of researchers led by Dr. Maxime Aubert announced the discovery of the oldest hunting scenes in prehistoric art in the world which is more than 44,000 years old from the limestone cave of Leang Bulu' Sipong 4. Archaeologists determined the age of the depiction of hunting a pig and buffalo thanks to the calcite 'popcorn', different isotope levels of radioactive uranium and thorium.[21][22][23]
An elaborate 4.5 m long rock art panel in a limestone cave at Leang Bulu' in Sulawesi is sometimes considered the earliest figurative artwork in the world.[24] It portrays several figures hunting wild pigs and dwarf bovids. This rock art was dated to at least 43,900 years ago on the basis of uranium-series analysis of overlying speleothems. A painted hand stencil from Leang Timpuseng, which has a minimum age of 39,900 years, is now the oldest known hand stencil in the world.[25] Discoveries in 2021 revealed that this cave, Leang Tedongnge, has cave art with a minimum age of 45,500 years old, which made it the earliest known representational work of art in the world.[26] On July 3, 2024, the journal Nature published research findings indicating that the cave paintings which depict anthropomorphic figures interacting with a pig and measure 36 by 15 inches (91 by 38 cm) in Leang Karampuang are approximately 51,200 years old, establishing them as the oldest known paintings in the world.[27][28]
Austronesian people form the majority of the modern population. They may have arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE and are thought to have originated in Taiwan.[29] During this period, parts of Indonesia participated in the Maritime Jade Road, with outlets in Kalimantan which existed for 3,000 years between 2000 BCE to 1000 CE.[30][31][32][33] Dong Son culture spread to Indonesia bringing with it techniques of wet-field rice cultivation, ritual buffalo sacrifice, bronze casting, megalithic practises, and ikat weaving methods. Some of these practices remain in areas including the Batak areas of Sumatra, Toraja in Sulawesi, and several islands in Nusa Tenggara. Early Indonesians were animists who honoured the spirits of the dead believing their souls or life force could still help the living.
Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE,[34] allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century CE. These kingdoms (little more than collections of villages subservient to petty chieftains) evolved with their own ethnic and tribal religions. Java's hot and even temperature, abundant rain and volcanic soil, was perfect for wet rice cultivation. Such agriculture required a well-organized society, in contrast to the society based on dry-field rice, which is a much simpler form of cultivation that does not require an elaborate social structure to support it.
Buni culture clay pottery flourished in coastal northern West Java and Banten around 400 BCE to 100 CE.[35] The Buni culture was probably the predecessor of the Tarumanagara kingdom, one of the earliest Hindu kingdoms in Indonesia, producing numerous inscriptions and marking the beginning of the historical period in Java.
Hindu-Buddhist civilizations
Early kingdoms
Much of Indonesia, like much of Southeast Asia, were influenced by Indian culture.[36] From the 2nd century, through Indian dynasties including the Pallava, Gupta, Pala and Chola, and in the succeeding centuries up to the 12th century, Indian culture spread across all of Southeast Asia.[36]
References to the Dvipantara or Yawadvipa, a Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra appear in Sanskrit writings from 200 BCE. In India's earliest epic, the Ramayana, Sugriva, the chief of Rama's army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita.[37] According to the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai, Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram.[38][39][40] The earliest archaeological relic discovered in Indonesia is from Ujung Kulon National Park, West Java, where an early Hindu statue of Ganesha estimated to date from the 1st century CE was found at the summit of Mount Raksa in Panaitan island. There is also archaeological evidence for the Sunda Kingdom in West Java dating from the 2nd-century, and Jiwa Temple in Batujaya, Karawang, West Java was also probably built around this time. South Indian culture was spread to Southeast Asia by the south Indian Pallava dynasty in the 4th and 5th centuries.[41] and by the 5th century, stone inscriptions written in Pallava scripts were found in Java and Borneo.
A number of Hindu and Buddhist states flourished and then declined across Indonesia. Seven rough plinths dating from the beginning of the 4th century CE were found in Kutai, East Kalimantan, near the Mahakam River. These are known as the Yupa inscription or "Mulavarman Inscription" and are believed to be one of the earliest Sanskrit inscriptions in Indonesia. The plinths were written by Brahmins in the Sanskrit language using the Pallava script. They discuss a generous king by the name of Mulavarman who donated mamy alms to Brahmin priests in his kingdom. The kingdom was known as the Kutai Martadipura Kingdom and was located in present East Kalimantan Province. It is sometimes believed to be the oldest and first Hindu kingdom of Indonesia.[42]
Tarumanagara and Sunda
One such early kingdom was Tarumanagara, which flourished between 358 and 669 CE in West Java close to modern-day Jakarta. Its 5th-century king, Purnawarman, established the earliest known inscriptions on Java, the Ciaruteun inscription located near Bogor, the Pasir Awi inscription and the Muncul inscription. On this monument, King Purnawarman inscribed his name and made an imprint of his footprints, as well as his elephant's footprints. The accompanying inscription reads, "Here are the footprints of King Purnavarman, the heroic conqueror of the world". This inscription is written in Sanskrit in the Pallava script and is still clear after 1500 years. Purnawarman apparently built a canal that changed the course of the Cakung River, and drained a coastal area for agriculture and settlement purpose. In his stone inscriptions, Purnawarman associated himself with Vishnu, and Brahmins ritually secured the hydraulic project.[43]
Around the same period, in the 6th to 7th centuries (501–700 CE), the Kalingga Kingdom was established on the northern coast of Central Java according to Chinese records.[44] The name of this kingdom was derived from the Indian kingdom of Kalinga.
During the 7th to 11th centuries (601–1100 CE) the archipelago was dominated by Srivijaya with its capital on Sumatra and Sailendra based on Java. The kings of Sailendra constructed Borobudur, the largest Buddhist monument in the world. The history prior to the 14th and 15th centuries (1301–1500 CE) is not well known due to the scarcity of evidence. By the 15th century (1401–1500 CE), two major states dominated; Majapahit in East Java, the greatest of the pre-Islamic Indonesian states, and Malacca on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, arguably one of the greatest of the Muslim trading empires.[45] This marked the rise of Muslim states in the Indonesian archipelago.
Mataram
Mataram Empire, sometimes referred to as Mataram Kingdom,[46] was an Indianized kingdom based in Central Java around modern-day Yogyakarta between the 8th and 10th centuries. The kingdom was ruled by the Sailendra dynasty, and later by the Sanjaya dynasty. The centre of the kingdom was moved from central Java to East Java by Mpu Sindok. An eruption of the volcano Mount Merapi in 929, and political pressure from Sailendrans based in the Srivijaya Empire may have caused the move.
The first king of Mataram, Sri Sanjaya, left inscriptions in stone.[47] The monumental Hindu temple of Prambanan in the vicinity of Yogyakarta was built by Pikatan. Dharmawangsa ordered the translation of the Mahabharata into Old Javanese in 996.
In the period 750 CE – 850 CE, the kingdom saw the blossoming of classical Javanese art and architecture. A rapid increase in temple construction occurred across the landscape of its heartland in Mataram (Kedu and Kewu Plain). The most notable temples constructed in Mataram are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur and Prambanan. The Empire had become the supreme power not only in Java but also over Srivijayan Empire, Bali, southern Thailand, some Philippine kingdoms, and Khmer in Cambodia.[48]
Later in its history, the dynasty divided into two dynasties based on their own religion, the Buddhist and Shivaist dynasties. Civil war was unavoidable and the outcome was Mataram Empire divided into two powerful kingdom based on region and religion. The Shivaist dynasty of Mataram kingdom in Java led by Rakai Pikatan and the Buddhist dynasty of Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra led by Balaputradewa. The hostility between them didn't end until in 1006 when the Sailendran based in Srivijaya kingdom incited rebellion by Wurawari, vassal of Mataram kingdom and sacked Shivaist dynasty's capital in Watugaluh, Java. Srivijaya kingdom rose into undisputed hegemonic Empire in the era as the result. Yet the Shivaist dynasty survived and successfully reclaimed the east Java in 1019 then descended to Kahuripan kingdom led by Airlangga son of Udayana of Bali.[49]
Srivijaya
Srivijaya was a kingdom on Sumatra which influenced much of the Maritime Southeast Asia. From the 7th century, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it.[50][51]
Srivijaya was centred in the coastal trading centre of present-day Palembang. Srivijaya was not a "state" in the modern sense with defined boundaries and a centralised government to which the citizens own allegiance.[52] Rather Srivijaya was a confederacy form of society centred on a royal heartland.[52] It was a thalassocracy and did not extend its influence far beyond the coastal areas of the islands of Southeast Asia. Trade was the driving force of Srivijaya just as it is for most societies throughout history.[53] The Srivijayan navy controlled the trade that made its way through the Strait of Malacca.[53]
By the 7th century, the harbours of various vassal states of Srivijaya lined both coasts of the Straits of Melaka.[53] Around this time, Srivijaya had established suzerainty over large areas of Sumatra, western Java, and much of the Malay Peninsula.[54] Dominating the Malacca and Sunda straits, the empire controlled both the Spice Route traffic and local trade.[54] It remained a formidable sea power until the 13th century.[54] This spread the ethnic Malay culture throughout Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and western Borneo.[55] A stronghold of Mahayana Buddhism, Srivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia.[54]
The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola Empire of south India was friendly during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I but during the reign of Rajendra Chola I the Chola Empire attacked Srivijaya cities.[56] A series of Chola raids in the 11th century weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms based, like Kediri, on intensive agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. Srivijayan influence waned by the 11th century. The island was in frequent conflict with the Javanese kingdoms, first Singhasari and then Majapahit. Islam eventually made its way to the Aceh region of Sumatra, spreading its influence through contacts with Arabs and Indian traders. By the late 13th century, the kingdom of Pasai in northern Sumatra converted to Islam. The last inscription dates to 1374, where a crown prince, Ananggavarman, is mentioned. Srivijaya ceased to exist by 1414, when Parameswara, the kingdom's last prince, fled to Temasik, then to Malacca. Later his son converted to Islam and founded the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay peninsula.
Singhasari and Majapahit
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Majapahit was the most dominant of Indonesia's pre-Islamic states.[45] The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada it experienced what is often referred to as a golden age in Indonesian history,[57] when its influence extended to much of southern Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, and Bali[58] from about 1293 to around 1500.
The founder of the Majapahit Empire, Kertarajasa, was the son-in-law of the ruler of the Singhasari kingdom, also based in Java. After Singhasari drove Srivijaya out of Java in 1290, the rising power of Singhasari came to the attention of Kublai Khan in China and he sent emissaries demanding tribute. Kertanagara, ruler of the Singhasari kingdom, refused to pay tribute and the Khan sent a punitive expedition which arrived off the coast of Java in 1293. By that time, a rebel from Kediri, Jayakatwang, had killed Kertanagara. The Majapahit founder allied himself with the Mongols against Jayakatwang and, once the Singhasari kingdom was destroyed, turned and forced his Mongol allies to withdraw in confusion.
Gajah Mada, a Majapahit prime minister and regent from 1331 to 1364, extended the empire's rule to the surrounding islands. A few years after Gajah Mada's death, the Majapahit navy captured Palembang, putting an end to the Sriwijaya kingdom. Although the Majapahit rulers extended their power over other islands and destroyed neighbouring kingdoms, their focus seems to have been on controlling and gaining a larger share of the commercial trade that passed through the archipelago. About the time Majapahit was founded, Muslim traders and proselytisers began entering the area. After its peak in the 14th century, Majapahit power began to decline and was unable to control the rising power of the Sultanate of Malacca. Dates for the end of the Majapahit Empire range from 1478 to 1520. A large number of courtiers, artisans, priests, and members of the royal family moved east to the island of Bali at the end of Majapahit power.
Islamic civilizations
Spread of Islam
The earliest accounts of the Indonesian archipelago date from the Abbasid Caliphate, according to those early accounts the Indonesian archipelago were famous among early Muslim sailors mainly due to its abundance of precious spice trade commodities such as nutmeg, cloves, galangal and many other spices.[59]
Although Muslim traders first travelled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the spread of Islam among the inhabitants of the Indonesian archipelago dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra.[60][61]
Although it is known that the spread of Islam began in the west of the archipelago, the fragmentary evidence does not suggest a rolling wave of conversion through adjacent areas; rather, it suggests the process was complicated and slow.[60] The spread of Islam was driven by increasing trade links outside of the archipelago; in general, traders and the royalty of major kingdoms were the first to adopt the new religion.[62]
Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, making it the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 7th until 13th century.[3] For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.[62] Only Bali retained a Hindu majority. In the eastern archipelago, both Christian and Islamic missionaries were active in the 16th and 17th centuries, and, currently, there are large communities of both religions on these islands.[62]
Sultanate of Mataram
The Sultanate of Mataram was the third Sultanate in Java, after the Sultanate of Demak Bintoro and the Sultanate of Pajang.[63]
According to Javanese records, Kyai Gedhe Pamanahan became the ruler of the Mataram area in the 1570s with the support of the kingdom of Pajang to the east, near the current site of Surakarta (Solo). Pamanahan was often referred to as Kyai Gedhe Mataram after his ascension.[64]
Pamanahan's son, Panembahan Senapati, replaced his father on the throne around 1584. Under Senapati the kingdom grew substantially through regular military campaigns against Mataram's neighbours. Shortly after his accession, for example, he conquered his father's patrons in Pajang.[63]
The reign of Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak (Suhusunan Anyakrawati) (c. 1601–1613), the son of Senapati, was dominated by further warfare, especially against powerful Surabaya, already a major centre in East Java. The first contact between Mataram and the Dutch East India Company (VOC) occurred under Krapyak. Dutch activities at the time were limited to trading from limited coastal settlements, so their interactions with the inland Mataram kingdom were limited, although they did form an alliance against Surabaya in 1613. Krapyak died that year.[65]
Krapyak was succeeded by his son, who is known simply as Sultan Agung ("Great Sultan") in Javanese records. Agung was responsible for the great expansion and lasting historical legacy of Mataram due to the extensive military conquests of his long reign from 1613 to 1646.
Sultanate of Banten
In 1524–25, Sunan Gunung Jati from Cirebon, together with the armies of Demak Sultanate, seized the port of Banten from the Sunda kingdom, and established The Sultanate of Banten. This was accompanied by Muslim preachers and the adoption of Islam amongst the local population. At its peak in the first half of the 17th century, the Sultanate lasted from 1526 to 1813 AD. The Sultanate left many archaeological remains and historical records.[66]
European colonization
Beginning in the 16th century, successive waves of Europeans—the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch and English—sought to dominate the spice trade at its sources in India and the 'Spice Islands' (Maluku) of Indonesia. This meant finding a way to Asia to cut out Muslim merchants who, with their Venetian outlet in the Mediterranean, monopolised spice imports to Europe. Astronomically priced at the time, spices were highly coveted not only to preserve and make poorly preserved meat palatable, but also as medicines and magic potions.[67]
The Portuguese
Newfound Portuguese expertise in navigation, shipbuilding and weaponry allowed them to make daring expeditions of exploration and expansion. Starting with the first exploratory expeditions sent from newly conquered Malacca in 1512, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in Indonesia, and sought to dominate the sources of valuable spices[68] and to extend the Catholic Church's missionary efforts. The Portuguese turned east to Maluku and through both military conquest and alliance with local rulers, they established trading posts, forts, and missions on the islands of Ternate, Ambon, and Solor among others. The height of Portuguese missionary activities, however, came in the latter half of the 16th century. Ultimately, the Portuguese presence in Indonesia was reduced to Solor, Flores and Timor in modern-day Nusa Tenggara, following defeat at the hands of indigenous Ternateans and the Dutch in Maluku, and a general failure to maintain control of trade in the region.[69] In comparison with the original Portuguese ambition to dominate Asian trade, their influence on Indonesian culture was small: the romantic keroncong guitar ballads; a number of Indonesian words which reflect Portuguese's role as the lingua franca of the archipelago alongside Malay; and many family names in eastern Indonesia such as da Costa, Dias, de Fretes, Gonsalves, etc. The most significant impacts of the Portuguese arrival were the disruption and disorganisation of the trade network mostly as a result of their conquest of Malacca, and the first significant plantings of Christianity in Indonesia. There have continued to be Christian communities in eastern Indonesia through to the present, which has contributed to a sense of shared interest with Europeans, particularly among the Ambonese.[70]
Dutch East India Company
In 1602, the Dutch parliament awarded the VOC a monopoly on trade and colonial activities in the region at a time before the company controlled any territory in Java. In 1619, the VOC conquered the West Javan city of Jayakarta, where they founded the city of Batavia (present-day Jakarta). The VOC became deeply involved in the internal politics of Java in this period, and fought in a number of wars involving the leaders of Mataram and Banten.
The Dutch followed the Portuguese aspirations, courage, brutality, and strategies but brought better organisation, weapons, ships, and superior financial backing. Although they failed to gain complete control of the Indonesian spice trade, they had much more success than the previous Portuguese efforts. They exploited the factionalisation of the small kingdoms in Java that had replaced Majapahit, establishing a permanent foothold in Java, from which grew a land-based colonial empire which became one of the richest colonial possessions on earth.[70]
By the mid-17th century, Batavia, the headquarter of VOC in Asia, had become an important trade centre in the region. It had repelled attacks from the Javanese Mataram kingdom. In 1641, the Dutch captured Malacca from the Portuguese, thus weakened Portuguese position in Asia. The Dutch defeated the Sulawesi city of Makassar in 1667 thus bringing its trade under VOC control. Sumatran ports were also brought under VOC control and the last of the Portuguese were expelled in 1660. In return for monopoly control over the pepper trade and the expulsion of the English, the Dutch helped the son of the ruler of Banten overthrow his father in 1680. By the 18th century, the VOC has established themselves firmly in Indonesian archipelago, controlling inter-island trade as part of their Asian business which includes India, Ceylon, Formosa, and Japan. VOC has established their important bases in some ports in Java, Maluku, and parts of Sulawesi, Sumatra, and Malay Peninsula.
French and British interlude
After the fall of the Netherlands to the First French Empire and the dissolution of the Dutch East India Company in 1800, there were profound changes in the European colonial administration of the East Indies. The company's assets in East Indies were nationalised as the Dutch colony, the Dutch East Indies. Meanwhile, Europe was devastated by the Napoleonic Wars. In the Netherlands, Napoleon Bonaparte in 1806 oversaw the dissolution of the Batavian Republic, which was replaced by the Kingdom of Holland, a French puppet kingdom ruled by Napoleon's third brother Louis Bonaparte (Lodewijk Napoleon). The East Indies were treated as a proxy French colony, administered through a Dutch intermediary.
In 1806, King Lodewijk of the Netherlands sent one of his generals, Herman Willem Daendels, to serve as governor-general of the East Indies, based in Java. Daendels was sent to strengthen Javanese defences against a predicted British invasion. Since 1685, the British had had a presence in Bencoolen on the western coast of Sumatra, as well as several posts north of the Malaccan straits. Daendels was responsible for the construction of the Great Post Road (Indonesian: Jalan Raya Pos) across northern Java from Anjer to Panaroecan. The thousand-kilometre road was meant as to ease logistics across Java and was completed in only one year, during which thousands of Javanese forced labourers died.[71] In 1811, Java was captured by the British, becoming a possession of the British Empire, and Thomas Stamford Raffles was appointed as the island's governor. Raffles launched several military expeditions against local Javanese princes; such as the assault on Yogyakarta kraton on 21 June 1812, and the military expedition against Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II of Palembang, along with giving orders to seize the nearby Bangka Island.[72][73] During his administration, numbers of ancient monuments in Java were rediscovered, excavated and systematically catalogued for the first time, the most important one being the rediscovery of Borobudur Buddhist temple in Central Java.[74][75] Raffles was an enthusiast of the island's history, as he wrote the book The History of Java published later in 1817. In 1816, under the administration of British governor John Fendall, Java was returned to control of the Netherlands as per the terms of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814.[76][77]
Dutch state rule
After the VOC was dissolved in 1800 following bankruptcy,[78] and after the end of British rule under Raffles' governorship, the Dutch state took over the VOC possessions in 1816. A Javanese uprising was crushed in the Java War of 1825–1830. After 1830, a system of forced cultivations and indentured labour was introduced on Java, the Cultivation System (in Dutch: cultuurstelsel). This system brought the Dutch and their Indonesian allies enormous wealth. The cultivation system tied peasants to their land, forcing them to work in government-owned plantations for 60 days of the year. The system was abolished in a more liberal period after 1870. In 1901, the Dutch adopted what they called the Ethical Policy, which included somewhat increased investment in indigenous education, and modest political reforms.
Modeling the former successes of the VOC's former opium monopoly in the islands, and after a series of Opiumpacht, the Netherlands established the Opiumregie (Opium Monopoly), which began operations in Batavia in 1898.[79] In 1934, this was merged with the Zoutregie to become the Opium-en-zoutregie (Opium and Salt Monopoly).[80] The Opiumregie and the Opium-en-zootregie were the only legally authorized entities in the Dutch East Indies to sell opium, and they were also mandated with the enforcement powers to imprison any private party that sold opium, cocaine, or heroin in the islands.[80] The Opiumregie managed a large police force, narcotics officers, and naval vessels to arrest anyone who consumed these drugs in districts where they were forbidden. The monopoly over opium was so resolute, that it was the impetus for the Dutch intervention in Bali. The government made millions selling opium.[79] This monopoly did not stop until the Japanese invasion of Indonesia.
The Dutch colonials formed a privileged upper social class of soldiers, administrators, managers, teachers, and pioneers. They lived together with the "natives", but at the top of a rigid social and racial caste system.[81][82] The Dutch East Indies had two legal classes of citizens; European and indigenous. A third class, Foreign Easterners, was added in 1920.[83]
Upgrading the infrastructure of ports and roads was a high priority for the Dutch, with the goal of modernising the economy, pumping wages into local areas, facilitating commerce, and speeding up military movements. By 1950, Dutch engineers had built and upgraded a road network with 12,000 km of asphalted surface, 41,000 km of metalled road area and 16,000 km of gravel surfaces.[84] In addition the Dutch built 7,500 kilometres (4,700 mi) of railways, bridges, irrigation systems covering 1.4 million hectares (5,400 sq mi) of rice fields, several harbours, and 140 public drinking water systems. These Dutch constructed public works became the economic base of the colonial state; after independence, they became the basis of the Indonesian infrastructure.[85]
For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over its territories in the Indonesian archipelago was tenuous. In some cases, Dutch police and military actions in parts of Indonesia were quite cruel. Recent discussions, for example, of Dutch cruelty in Aceh have encouraged renewed research on these aspects of Dutch rule.[86] It was only in the early 20th century, three centuries after the first Dutch trading post, that the full extent of the colonial territory was established and direct colonial rule exerted across what would become the boundaries of the modern Indonesian state.[87] Portuguese Timor, now East Timor, remained under Portuguese rule until 1975 when it was invaded by Indonesia. The Indonesian government declared the territory an Indonesian province but relinquished it in 1999.
Emergence of Indonesia
Indonesian National Awakening
In October 1908, the first nationalist movement was formed, Budi Utomo.[88] On 10 September 1912, the first nationalist mass movement was formed: Sarekat Islam.[89] By December 1912, Sarekat Islam had 93,000 members.[89] The Dutch responded after the First World War with repressive measures. The nationalist leaders came from a small group of young professionals and students, some of whom had been educated in the Netherlands. In the post–World War I era, the Indonesian communists who were associated with the Third International started to usurp the nationalist movement.[90] The repression of the nationalist movement led to many arrests, including Indonesia's future first president, Sukarno (1901–70), who was imprisoned for political activities on 29 December 1929.[91] Also arrested was Mohammad Hatta, first vice-president of Indonesia.[92] Additionally, Sutan Sjahrir, who later became the first Prime Minister of Indonesia, was arrested on this date.[93]
In 1914 the exiled Dutch socialist Henk Sneevliet founded the Indies Social Democratic Association. Initially a small forum of Dutch socialists, it would later evolve into the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) in 1924.[94] In the post–World War I era, the Dutch strongly repressed all attempts at change. This repression led to a growth of the PKI. By December 1924, the PKI had a membership of 1,140.[94] One year later in 1925, the PKI had grown to 3,000 members.[94] From 1926 to 1927, there was a PKI-led revolt against Dutch colonialism and the harsh repression of strikes of urban workers.[95] However, the strikes and the revolt were put down by the Dutch with some 13,000 nationalists and communists leaders arrested.[95] Some 4,500 were given prison sentences.[95]
Sukarno was released from prison in December 1931 [96] but was re-arrested on 1 August 1933.[97]
Japanese occupation
The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation during World War II interrupted Dutch rule[98][99] and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. In May 1940, early in World War II, Nazi Germany occupied the Netherlands, but the Dutch government-in-exile initially continued to control the Dutch East Indies from its base in London. The Dutch East Indies declared a state of siege and in July 1940 redirected exports intended for Japan to the US and Britain. Negotiations with the Japanese aimed at securing supplies of aviation fuel collapsed in June 1941, and the Japanese started their conquest of Southeast Asia in December of that year.[100] That same month, factions from Sumatra sought Japanese assistance for a revolt against the Dutch wartime government. The Japanese military defeated last Dutch forces in the East Indies in March 1942.
_luisteren_de_Japanse_bevelhebber_kolonel_Kaida_Tatuichi_en_zijn_stafcommandant_majoor_Muiosu_Slioji_aan_dek_van_H_TMnr_10001519.jpg)
In July 1942, Sukarno accepted Japan's offer to rally the public in support of the Japanese war effort. Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta were decorated by the Emperor of Japan in 1943. However, experience of the Japanese occupation of Dutch East Indies varied considerably, depending upon where one lived and one's social position. Many who lived in areas considered important to the war effort experienced torture, sex slavery, arbitrary arrest and execution, and other war crimes. Thousands taken away from Indonesia as war labourers (romusha) suffered or died as a result of ill-treatment and starvation. People of Dutch and mixed Dutch-Indonesian descent were particular targets of the Japanese occupation.
In March 1945, the Japanese established the Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence (BPUPK) as the initial stage of the establishment of independence for the area under the control of the Japanese 16th Army.[101] At its first meeting in May, Soepomo spoke of national integration and against personal individualism, while Muhammad Yamin suggested that the new nation should claim British Borneo, British Malaya, Portuguese Timor, and all the pre-war territories of the Dutch East Indies. The committee drafted the 1945 Constitution, which remains in force, though now much amended. On 9 August 1945 Sukarno, Hatta, and Radjiman Wediodiningrat were flown to meet Marshal Hisaichi Terauchi in Vietnam. They were told that Japan intended to announce Indonesian independence on 24 August. After the Japanese surrender, however, Sukarno unilaterally proclaimed Indonesian independence on 17 August. A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation.[102]
Indonesian National Revolution
Under pressure from radical and politicised pemuda ('youth') groups, Sukarno and Hatta on behalf of the Nation proclaimed Indonesian independence on 17 August 1945 from colonialism by foreign nations two days after the Japanese Emperor's surrender in the Pacific, and made this nation an independent state, which has the right to govern its people and nation in accordance with the philosophy, character and spirit of the Indonesia nation itself.[103] The following day, the Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP) declared Sukarno President and Hatta Vice-President.[104][105][106][107][108] Word of the proclamation spread by shortwave and fliers while the Indonesian war-time military (PETA), youths, and others rallied in support of the new republic, often moving to take over government offices from the Japanese. In December 1946 the United Nations acknowledged[109] that Netherlands had advised the United Nations that the "Netherlands Indies" was a non-self-governing territory (colony) for which the Netherlands had a legal duty to make yearly reports and to assist towards "a full measure of self-government" as required by the Charter of the United Nations article 73.
The Dutch, initially backed by the British, tried to re-establish their rule,[citation needed] and a bitter armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure,[110] the Dutch formally recognised Indonesian independence.[106] Dutch efforts to re-establish complete control met resistance. At the end of World War II, a power vacuum arose, and the nationalists often succeeded in seizing the arms of the demoralised Japanese. A period of unrest with city guerrilla warfare called the Bersiap period ensued. Groups of Indonesian nationalists armed with improvised weapons (like bamboo spears) and firearms attacked returning Allied troops. 3,500 Europeans were killed and 20,000 were missing, meaning there were more European deaths in Indonesia after the war than during the war. After returning to Java, Dutch forces quickly re-occupied the colonial capital of Batavia (now Jakarta), so the city of Yogyakarta in central Java became the capital of the nationalist forces. Negotiations with the nationalists led to two major truce agreements, but disputes about their implementation, and much mutual provocation, led each time to renewed conflict. Within four years the Dutch had recaptured almost the whole of Indonesia, but guerrilla resistance persisted, led on Java by commander Nasution. On 27 December 1949, after four years of sporadic warfare and fierce criticism of the Dutch by the UN, the Netherlands officially recognised Indonesian sovereignty under the federal structure of the United States of Indonesia (RUSI). With the unification of all the kingdoms in the archipelago on 17 August 1950, exactly five years after the proclamation of independence, the last of the federal states were dissolved and Sukarno proclaimed a single unitary Republic of Indonesia until now.[111][103]
Sukarno's presidency
Democratic experiment
With the unifying struggle to secure Indonesia's independence over, divisions in Indonesian society began to appear. These included regional differences in customs, religion, the impact of Christianity and Marxism, and fears of Javanese political domination. Following colonial rule, Japanese occupation, and war against the Dutch, the new country suffered from severe poverty, a ruinous economy, low educational and skills levels, and authoritarian traditions.[112][113] Challenges to the authority of the Republic included the militant Darul Islam who waged a guerrilla struggle against the Republic from 1948 to 1962; the declaration of an independent Republic of South Maluku by Ambonese formerly of the Royal Dutch Indies Army; and rebellions in Sumatra and Sulawesi between 1955 and 1961.
In contrast to the 1945 Constitution, the 1950 constitution mandated a parliamentary system of government, an executive responsible to parliament, and stipulated at length constitutional guarantees for human rights, drawing heavily on the 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[114] A proliferation of political parties dealing for shares of cabinet seats resulted in a rapid turnover of coalition governments including 17 cabinets between 1945 and 1958. The long-postponed parliamentary elections were held in 1955; although the Indonesian National Party (PNI)—considered Sukarno's party—topped the poll, and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) received strong support, no party garnered more than a quarter of the votes, which resulted in short-lived coalitions.[113]
Guided Democracy
By 1956, Sukarno was openly criticising parliamentary democracy, stating that it was "based upon inherent conflict" which ran counter to Indonesian notions of harmony as being the natural state of human relationships. Instead, he sought a system based on the traditional village system of discussion and consensus, under the guidance of village elders. He proposed a threefold blend of nasionalisme ('nationalism'), agama ('religion'), and komunisme ('communism') into a co-operative 'Nas-A-Kom' government. This was intended to appease the three main factions in Indonesian politics — the army, Islamic groups, and the communists. With the support of the military, he proclaimed in February 1957 a system of 'Guided Democracy', and proposed a cabinet representing all the political parties of importance (including the PKI).[113] The US tried and failed to secretly overthrow the president, even though Secretary of State Dulles declared before Congress that "we are not interested in the internal affairs of this country."[115]
Sukarno abrogated the 1950 Constitution on 9 July 1959 by a decree dissolving the Constitutional Assembly and restoring the 1945 Constitution.[113] The elected parliament was replaced by one appointed by, and subject to the will of, the president. This dissolution of the constitutional assembly caused Sukarno to ban the Masyumi Party in August 1960.[116] Another non-elected body, the Supreme Advisory Council, was the main policy development body, while the National Front was set up in September 1960 and presided over by the president to "mobilise the revolutionary forces of the people".[113] Western-style parliamentary democracy was thus finished in Indonesia until the 1999 elections of the Reformasi era.[113]
Sukarno's revolution and nationalism
Charismatic Sukarno spoke as a romantic revolutionary, and under his increasingly authoritarian rule, Indonesia moved on a course of stormy nationalism. Sukarno was popularly referred to as bung ("older brother"), and he painted himself as a man of the people carrying the aspirations of Indonesia and one who dared take on the West.[117] He instigated a number of large, ideologically driven infrastructure projects and monuments celebrating Indonesia's identity, which were criticised as substitutes for real development in a deteriorating economy.[117] More positively, various reforms in health, education[118] and working conditions were carried out during Sukarno's presidency.[119][120]
Western New Guinea had been part of the Dutch East Indies, and Indonesian nationalists had thus claimed it on this basis. Indonesia was able to instigate a diplomatic and military confrontation with the Dutch over the territory following an Indonesian-Soviet arms agreement in 1960. It was, however, United States pressure on the Netherlands that led to an Indonesian takeover in 1963.[121] Also in 1963, Indonesia commenced Konfrontasi with the new state of Malaysia. The northern states of Borneo, formerly British Sarawak and Sabah, had wavered in joining Malaysia, whilst Indonesia saw itself as the rightful ruler of Austronesian peoples and supported an unsuccessful revolution attempt in Brunei.[121] Reviving the glories of the Indonesian National Revolution, Sukarno increased the anti-British sentiment in his rhetoric and mounted military offensives along the Indonesia-Malaysia border in Borneo. As the PKI rallied in Jakarta streets in support, the West became increasingly alarmed at Indonesian foreign policy and the United States withdrew its aid to Indonesia.[121]
Indonesia's economic position deteriorated under Sukarno; by the mid-1960s, the cash-strapped government had to scrap critical public sector subsidies, inflation was at 1,000%, export revenues were shrinking, infrastructure crumbling, and factories were operating at minimal capacity with negligible investment. Severe poverty and hunger were widespread.[121][122]
New Order
Transition to the New Order
Described as the great dalang ("puppet master"), Sukarno's position depended on balancing the opposing and increasingly hostile forces of the army and the PKI. Sukarno's anti-imperialist ideology saw Indonesia increasingly dependent on Soviet and then communist China. By 1965, the PKI was the largest communist party in the world outside the Soviet Union or China. Penetrating all levels of government, the party increasingly gained influence at the expense of the army.[123]
On 30 September 1965, six of the most senior generals within the military and other officers were assassinated in an attempted coup. The insurgents, known later as the 30 September Movement, backed a rival faction of the army and took up positions in the capital, later seizing control of the national radio station. They claimed they were acting against a plot organised by the generals to overthrow Sukarno. Within a few hours, Major General Suharto, commander of the Army Strategic Reserve (Kostrad), mobilised counteraction, and by the evening of 1 October, it was clear that the coup, which had little co-ordination and was largely limited to Jakarta, had failed. Complicated and partisan theories continue to this day over the identity of the attempted coup's organisers and their aims. According to the Indonesian army, the PKI were behind the coup and used disgruntled army officers to carry it out, and this became the official account of Suharto's subsequent New Order administration.[citation needed]
The PKI was blamed for the coup, and anti-communists, initially following the army's lead, went on a violent anti-communist purge across much of the country. The PKI was effectively destroyed,[124][125][126] and the most widely accepted estimates are that between 500,000 and 1 million were killed.[127][128][129] The violence was especially brutal in Java and Bali. The PKI was outlawed and possibly more than 1 million of its leaders and affiliates were imprisoned.[129] The United States and other Western powers facilitated and supported the purge,[130][131][132] including with the American Central Intelligence Agency[133][134] and the United Kingdom's MI6.[135]
Throughout the 1965–66 period, President Sukarno attempted to restore his political position and shift the country back to its pre-October 1965 position but his Guided Democracy balancing act was destroyed with the PKI's demise. Although he remained president, the weakened Sukarno was forced to transfer key political and military powers to General Suharto, who by that time had become head of the armed forces. In March 1967, the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS) named General Suharto acting president. Suharto was formally appointed president in March 1968. Sukarno lived under virtual house arrest until his death in 1970.
Consolidation of the New Order
In the aftermath of Suharto's rise, hundreds of thousands of people were killed or imprisoned by the military and religious groups in a backlash against alleged communist supporters, with direct support from the United States.[136][137] Suharto's administration is commonly called the New Order era.[138] Suharto invited major foreign investment, which produced substantial, if uneven, economic growth. However, Suharto enriched himself and his family through business dealings and widespread corruption.[139]
Annexation of West Irian
At the time of independence, the Dutch retained control over the western half of New Guinea (also known as West Irian), and permitted steps towards self-government and a declaration of independence on 1 December 1961. After negotiations with the Dutch on the incorporation of the territory into Indonesia failed, an Indonesian paratroop invasion preceded armed clashes between Indonesian and Dutch troops in 1961 and 1962. In 1962 the United States pressured the Netherlands into secret talks with Indonesia which in August 1962 produced the New York Agreement, and Indonesia assumed administrative responsibility for West Irian on 1 May 1963.
Rejecting UN supervision, the Indonesian government under Suharto decided to settle the question of West Irian, the former Dutch New Guinea, in their favour. Rather than a referendum of all residents of West Irian as had been agreed under Sukarno, an 'Act of Free Choice' was conducted in 1969 in which 1,025 Papuan representatives of local councils were selected by the Indonesians. They were warned to vote in favour of Indonesian integration with the group unanimously voting for integration with Indonesia.[140] A subsequent UN General Assembly resolution confirmed the transfer of sovereignty to Indonesia.
West Irian was renamed Irian Jaya ('glorious Irian') in 1973. Opposition to Indonesian administration of Irian Jaya (later known as Papua) gave rise to guerrilla activity in the years following Jakarta's assumption of control.
Annexation of East Timor
In 1975, the Carnation Revolution in Portugal caused authorities there to announce plans for decolonisation of Portuguese Timor, the eastern half of the island of Timor whose western half was a part of the Indonesian province of East Nusa Tenggara. In the East Timorese elections held in 1975, Fretilin, a left-leaning party, and UDT, aligned with the local elite, emerged as the largest parties, having previously formed an alliance to campaign for independence from Portugal. Apodeti, a party advocating integration with Indonesia, enjoyed little popular support.
Indonesia alleged that Fretilin was communist, and feared that an independent East Timor would influence separatism in the archipelago. Indonesian military intelligence influenced the break-up of the alliance between Fretilin and UDT, which led to a coup by the UDT on 11 August 1975 and the start of a month-long civil war. During this time, the Portuguese government effectively abandoned the territory and did not resume the decolonisation process. On 28 November, Fretilin unilaterally declared independence, and proclaimed the 'Democratic Republic of East Timor'. Nine days later, on 7 December, Indonesia invaded East Timor, eventually annexing the tiny country of (then) 680,000 people. Indonesia was supported materially and diplomatically by the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom, who regarded Indonesia as an anti-communist ally.
Following the 1998 resignation of Suharto, the people of East Timor voted overwhelmingly for independence in a UN-sponsored referendum held on 30 August 1999. About 99% of the eligible population participated; more than three quarters chose independence despite months of attacks by the Indonesian military and its militia. After the result was announced, elements of the Indonesian military and its militia retaliated by killing approximately 2,000 East Timorese, displacing two-thirds of the population, raping hundreds of women and girls, and destroying much of the country's infrastructure. In October 1999, the Indonesian parliament (MPR) revoked the decree that annexed East Timor, and the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) assumed responsibility for governing East Timor until it officially became an independent state in May 2002.
Transmigration
The Transmigration program (Transmigrasi) was a National Government initiative to move landless people from densely populated areas of Indonesia (such as Java and Bali) to less populous areas of the country including Papua, Kalimantan, Sumatra, and Sulawesi.[141][142] The stated purpose of this program was to reduce the considerable poverty and overpopulation on Java, to provide opportunities for hard-working poor people, and to provide a workforce to better utilise the resources of the outer islands. The program, however, has been controversial, with critics accusing the Indonesian Government of trying to use these migrants to reduce the proportion of native populations in destination areas to weaken separatist movements.[143] The program has often been cited as a major and ongoing factor in controversies and even conflict and violence between settlers and indigenous populations.
Reform era
Pro-democracy movement
In 1996, Suharto undertook efforts to pre-empt a challenge to the New Order government. The Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI), a legal party that had traditionally propped up the regime, had changed direction and began to assert its independence. Suharto fostered a split over the leadership of PDI, backing a co-opted faction loyal to deputy speaker of the People's Representative Council Suryadi against a faction loyal to Megawati Sukarnoputri, the daughter of Sukarno and the PDI's chairperson.
After the Suryadi faction announced a party congress to sack Megawati would be held in Medan on 20–22 June, Megawati proclaimed that her supporters would hold demonstrations in protest. The Suryadi faction went through with its sacking of Megawati, and the demonstrations manifested themselves throughout Indonesia. This led to several confrontations on the streets between protesters and security forces, and recriminations over the violence. The protests culminated in the military allowing Megawati's supporters to take over PDI headquarters in Jakarta, with a pledge of no further demonstrations.
Suharto allowed the occupation of PDI headquarters to go on for almost a month, as attentions were also on Jakarta due to a set of high-profile ASEAN meetings scheduled to take place there. Capitalizing on this, Megawati supporters organised "democracy forums" with several speakers at the site. On 26 July, officers of the military, Suryadi, and Suharto openly aired their disgust with the forums.[144]
On 27 July, police, soldiers, and persons claiming to be Suryadi supporters stormed the headquarters. Several Megawati supporters were killed, and over two hundred people were arrested and tried under the Anti-Subversion and Hate-Spreading laws. The day would become known as "Black Saturday" and mark the beginning of a renewed crackdown by the New Order government against supporters of democracy, now called the "Reformasi" or Reform movement.[145]
Economic crisis and Suharto's resignation
In 1997 and 1998, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the 1997 Asian financial crisis,[146] which had dire consequences for the Indonesian economy and society, as well as Suharto's presidency. At the same time, the country suffered a severe drought and some of the largest forest fires in history burned in Kalimantan and Sumatra. The rupiah, the Indonesian currency, took a sharp dive in value. Suharto came under scrutiny from international lending institutions, chiefly the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the United States, over longtime embezzlement of funds and some protectionist policies. In December, Suharto's government signed a letter of intent to the IMF, pledging to enact austerity measures, including cuts to public services and removal of subsidies, in return for aid from the IMF and other donors. Prices for goods such as kerosene and rice, as well as fees for public services including education, rose dramatically. The effects were exacerbated by widespread corruption. The austerity measures approved by Suharto had started to erode domestic confidence with the New Order[147] and led to popular protests.
Suharto stood for re-election by parliament for the seventh time in March 1998, justifying it on the grounds of the necessity of his leadership during the crisis. The parliament approved a new term. This sparked protests and riots throughout the country, now termed the Indonesian 1998 Revolution. Dissent within the ranks of his own Golkar party and the military finally weakened Suharto, and on 21 May he stood down from power.[148] He was replaced by his deputy, Vice President B.J. Habibie.
President Habibie quickly assembled a cabinet. One of its main tasks was to re-establish International Monetary Fund and donor community support for an economic stabilisation program. He moved quickly to release political prisoners and lift some controls on freedom of speech and association. Elections for the national, provincial, and sub-provincial parliaments were held on 7 June 1999. In the elections for the national parliament, the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P, led by Sukarno's daughter Megawati Sukarnoputri) won 34% of the vote; Golkar (Suharto's party, formerly the only legal party of government) 22%; United Development Party (PPP, led by Hamzah Haz) 12%; and National Awakening Party (PKB, led by Abdurrahman Wahid) 10%.
May 1998 riots
The May 1998 riots of Indonesia also known as the 1998 tragedy or simply the 1998 event, were incidents of mass violence, demonstrations, and civil unrest of a racial nature that occurred throughout Indonesia.
Politics since 1999
In October 1999, the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR), which consists of the 500-member Parliament plus 200 appointed members, elected Abdurrahman Wahid, commonly referred to as "Gus Dur", as President, and Megawati Sukarnoputri as Vice-President, both for five-year terms. Abdurrahman named his first Cabinet in early November 1999 and a reshuffled, second Cabinet in August 2000. President Abdurrahman's government continued to pursue democratisation and to encourage renewed economic growth under challenging conditions. In addition to continuing economic malaise, his government faced regional, interethnic, and interreligious conflict, particularly in Aceh, the Maluku Islands, and Irian Jaya. In West Timor, the problems of displaced East Timorese and violence by pro-Indonesian East Timorese militias caused considerable humanitarian and social problems. An increasingly assertive Parliament frequently challenged President Abdurrahman's policies and prerogatives, contributing to a lively and sometimes rancorous national political debate.
During the People's Consultative Assembly's first annual session in August 2000, President Abdurrahman gave an account of his government's performance. On 29 January 2001, thousands of student protesters stormed parliament grounds and demanded that President Abdurrahman Wahid resign due to alleged involvement in corruption scandals. Under pressure from the Assembly to improve management and co-ordination within the government, he issued a presidential decree giving Vice-President Megawati control over the day-to-day administration of government. Soon after, Megawati Sukarnoputri assumed the presidency on 23 July. Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono won Indonesia's first direct presidential election in 2004,[149] and was reelected in 2009.[150]
Joko Widodo, the PDI-P candidate, was elected president in 2014. Having previously served as the Governor of Jakarta, he is the first Indonesian president without a high-ranking political or military background.[151] However, his opponent Prabowo Subianto disputed the outcome and withdrew from the race before the count was completed.[152] Jokowi was reelected in 2019, again defeating Prabowo Subianto.[153]
However, Prabowo Subianto won the 2024 election with his vice presidential running mate Gibran Rakabuming.[154] On 20 October 2024, Prabowo Subianto was sworn in as Indonesia's eighth president.[155] In January 2025, Indonesia formally joined the BRICS group as the first Southeast Asian nation.[156]
Terrorism
As a multi-ethnic and multicultural democratic country with a Muslim-majority population, Indonesia faces the challenge of dealing with terrorism linked to global militant Islamic movements. Jemaah Islamiyah (JI), a militant Islamic organisation that aspires for the establishment of a Daulah Islamiyah[157] across Southeast Asia, is responsible for a series of terrorist attacks in Indonesia. This terrorist organisation, linked to Al-Qaeda, was responsible for the Bali bombings in 2002 and 2005, as well as Jakarta bombings in 2003, 2004, and 2009. The Indonesian government and authorities have tried to crack down on terrorist cells in Indonesia.
On 14 January 2016, suicide bombers and gunmen initiated a terror attack in Jakarta, resulting in the death of eight people: three Indonesian civilians, a Canadian and four of the attackers. Twenty people were wounded during the attack. The Islamic State claimed responsibility for the incident.
Tsunami disaster and Aceh peace deal
On 26 December 2004, a massive earthquake and tsunami devastated parts of northern Sumatra, particularly Aceh. Partly as a result of the need for co-operation and peace during the recovery from the tsunami in Aceh, peace talks between the Indonesian government and the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) were restarted. Accords signed in Helsinki created a framework for military de-escalation in which the government has reduced its military presence, as members of GAM's armed wing decommission their weapons and apply for amnesty. The agreement also allows for local parties to be established, and other autonomy measures.
Forest and plantation fires
Since 1997 Indonesia has been struggling to contain forest fires, especially on the islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan. Haze occurs annually during the dry season and is largely caused by illegal agricultural fires due to slash-and-burn practices in Indonesia, especially in the provinces of South Sumatra and Riau on Indonesia's Sumatra island, and Kalimantan on Indonesian Borneo.[158][159][160] The haze that occurred in 1997 was one of the most severe; dense hazes occurred again in 2005, 2006, 2009, 2013, and the worst was in 2015, killing dozens of Indonesians as a result of respiratory illnesses and road accidents due to poor visibility. Another 10 people were killed due to smog from forest and land fires.[161][162][163][164][165]
In September 2014, Indonesia ratified the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution, becoming the last ASEAN country to do so.[166]
COVID-19 pandemic and political unrest
Indonesia confirmed its first cases of COVID-19 in March 2020. The government implemented large-scale social restrictions (Pembatasan Sosial Berskala Besar, PSBB) instead of nationwide lockdowns in order to balance public health with economic stability. The country entered its first recession in over two decades as the rupiah depreciated sharply.
In October, protests broke out against the controversial Omnibus Law on Job Creation, leading to over 5,000 arrests. The year was also notable for several high-level corruption scandals, with Social Affairs Minister Juliari Batubara and Maritime Affairs Minister Edhy Prabowo arrested on separate charges.
Pandemic response and reform
Indonesia conducted its first Intra-Action Review (IAR) in August 2020, leading to new strategies for pandemic preparedness.[167]
On 9 January 2021, Sriwijaya Air Flight 182 crashes into the Java Sea due to an Aircraft upset.
In June 2021, the World Bank approved US$500 million to support vaccinations, testing, and health infrastructure for Indonesia.[168]
By 2022, Indonesia assumed the G20 presidency and launched the Pandemic Fund initiative to bolster global health preparedness.[169]
Domestically, 2022 saw the passage of the Sexual Violence Law, a landmark in gender justice, and confirmation of Nusantara as the site of the new national capital through the State Capital Law.[170][171] The government also created five new provinces in Papua, reshuffled the cabinet, and gradually lifted most COVID-19 restrictions, ending the PPKM system in December.
Nusantara project and transition of power
Construction of Nusantara, envisioned as a sustainable “forest city” in East Kalimantan, began in 2022. The government targeted August 2024 for partial inauguration, including the new presidential palace. However, by mid-2024, the inauguration was indefinitely postponed due to delays in infrastructure and lack of private investment.[172]
In October 2024, Prabowo Subianto was inaugurated as President of Indonesia, succeeding Joko Widodo. His cabinet of 48 ministers and 55 deputies became the largest since the mid-1960s. Prabowo emphasized economic self-sufficiency, industrialization, and anti-corruption reforms while continuing (but scaling down) the Nusantara relocation project.
Indonesia also achieved sporting success at the 2024 Paris Summer Olympics, winning two gold medals (in sport climbing and weightlifting) and one bronze, its first Olympic golds outside of badminton.
In late August to early September 2025, Indonesia hosted Super Garuda Shield, a large multinational military exercise involving around 6,500 troops from 13 countries.
The same year, the country witnessed widespread protests sparked by revelations of high housing allowances (~50 million IDR per month) granted to lawmakers. The unrest intensified after the death of a 21-year-old delivery driver, Affan Kurniawan, during demonstrations. Several cities saw buildings set ablaze, with at least seven deaths, hundreds of injuries, and over 1,200 arrests. The military was deployed, and the government pledged to reduce perks and investigate the incidents. The United Nations called for an independent inquiry.[173]
In September 2025, former Education Minister and Gojek founder Nadiem Makarim was detained as a suspect in a corruption case linked to the procurement of Chromebooks in 2021.[174]
See also
- Foreign relations of Indonesia
- History of Southeast Asia
- List of presidents of Indonesia
- Politics of Indonesia
- Museums
Further reading
- Burhanudin, Jajat, and Kees van Dijk, eds. Islam in Indonesia: Contrasting Images and Interpretations (Amsterdam University Press, distributed by University of Chicago Press; 2013) 279 pages; scholarly articles
- Dijk, Kees van. 2001. A country in despair. Indonesia between 1997 and 2000. KITLV Press, Leiden, ISBN 90-6718-160-9
- Schwarz, Adam. 1994. A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia's Search for Stability. 2nd Edition. St Leonards, NSW : Allen & Unwin.
- van Zanden J. L. An Economic History of Indonesia: 1800–2010 (Routledge, 2012)
- Tagliacozzo, Eric, ed. Producing Indonesia: The State of the Field of Indonesian Studies (Cornell Modern Indonesia Project) (2014) Essays by 27 scholars.
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