2026-08-09

양주십일기 - 위키백과 양주대학살 Yangzhou massacre

양주십일기 - 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전

양주십일기

위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.

《양주십일기》(揚州十日記)는 중국 명말청초(明末清初) 왕수초(王秀楚)가 쓴 패사(稗史, 소설 형식으로 쓴 역사서)로, 명계패사초편(明季稗史初編)의 하나이다.

개요

저자 왕수초는 당시 양주(揚州)에 살던 이름 없는 성민으로 추정되는데, 청(淸) 순치(順治) 2년(1645년) 당시 양주성 공방전과 그 이후의 양주대학살을 자신이 보고 들은 것을 중심으로 묘사하고 있다.

명의 사가법(史可法)이 지키고 있던 양주성은 청 순치 2년 청의 예친왕(予親王) 아이신기오로 도도에 의해 공격당했고, 처절한 전투 끝에 함락되었다(다만 양주는 청군이 침입하기 전부터 규율이 무너질 대로 무너져 있던 남명군의 침략을 먼저 받았다[1]). 성을 함락시킨 청군은 음력 4월 25일부터 5월 5일까지 대규모 학살과 약탈을 저질렀으며, 80만 명에 달하는 양주성 주민들이 청군에 죽임을 당하였다. 이들 시신은 5월 2일(함락 8일째) 청의 점령군의 명령으로 사찰에서 거두어 화장하였다.

청군에 의한 잔학 행위에 대한 묘사를 포함하고 있었기에 청 왕조의 지배 아래서 이 책은 금서로 지정되어 공적으로 간행되지 못하였고, 사본 형태로 비밀리에 유통되었을 뿐이다. 청 가경(嘉慶) 13년(1808년) 그러니까 일본 분카(文化) 5년 이전에 일본에도 전래되었다.

다만 일본에서 유학한 혁명파 지식인들이 현지 도서관에서 발굴하여 역수입[2]했고 만주족을 학살하자는 선전선동에 쓰였던 사실과 저자가 만주족 병사들과 의사소통이 자연스럽게 통하는 것처럼 묘사되어 신빙성에 의문이 있다.

1911년 신해혁명(辛亥革命) 이전에는 청 왕조를 타도하고 한족을 부흥시키자는 이른바 「멸만흥한」(滅満興漢)의 구호와 함께 《양주십일기》가 일종의 바이블 역할을 하고 있었다.

각주

  1. 조영헌 《대운하와 중국 상인:회·양 지역 휘주 상인 성장사, 1415~1784》 민음사, 2014
  2. http://yonseisinology.org/archives/1471

외부 링크

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양주대학살

위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.
양저우 학살
명청 전쟁의 일부
청나라 말기의 학살에 대한 화가의 상상
위치양저우시
날짜1645년 5월 20일 ~ 25~29일; 381년 전
대상민간인
종류대량 살인, 약탈 및 방화
사망자300,000명 (현대 추정치)
공격자도도 휘하의 청나라군 ( 한팔기 포함)
동기명나라 관리 스커파가 주도한 저항 노력
'양저우 학살'
정체자揚州十日
간체자扬州十日
영어 표기양저우 십일

양주대학살은 1645년 5월, 청나라 양주시에서 만주족 장군 도도의 지휘 아래 청나라군이 양저우에서 자행한 대량 학살을 말한다.

이 학살은 왕수초의 동시대 기록인 《양주십일기》에 묘사되어 있다. 기록의 제목 때문에 이 사건은 종종 10일간의 학살로 언급되지만, 일기에는 시체 매장이 시작된 6일째에 학살이 끝났음을 보여준다.[1] 왕수초에 따르면 희생자 수는 80만 명을 넘어섰지만, 이 숫자는 현재 현대 역사가와 연구자들에 의해 극심한 과장으로 밝혀졌다.[2][3][4][5]

학살의 이유는 다음과 같다:

  • 명나라 관리 사가법이 주도한 저항 운동
  • 강남의 나머지 주민에게 군사 활동에 참여하고 청군에 저항한 책임을 부과

왕수초의 기록은 백하우스와 블랜드,[6] 루시안 마오,[7] 그리고 린 A. 스트루브를 포함한 여러 영어 번역으로 출판되었다. 다음은 스트루브의 번역본에서 발췌한 내용이다.[8]

수십 명의 사람들이 양이나 염소처럼 몰려다녔다. 뒤처지는 자들은 채찍질을 당하거나 즉시 살해당했다. 여자들은 무거운 밧줄로 목이 묶여 진주처럼 서로 연결되어 있었다. 한 걸음 내딛을 때마다 비틀거리며 진흙으로 뒤덮였다. 아기들은 사방에 버려져 있었다. 말발굽이나 사람 발에 밟혀 풀밭처럼 뭉개진 시체들의 장기는 흙에 묻혔고, 아직 살아있는 자들의 울음소리가 온 들판을 채웠다. 우리가 지나가는 모든 도랑이나 연못은 시체로 가득했고, 서로의 팔과 다리를 베고 있었다. 그들의 피는 물속으로 흘러들어 초록색과 붉은색이 섞여 다양한 색깔을 만들어냈다. 운하 또한 시체로 가득 채워져 수면과 평평해졌다.

그때 사방에서 불이 나기 시작했고, 초가집들은...불이 붙어 곧 불길에 휩싸였다...집 아래에 숨어 있던 사람들은 불의 열기 때문에 뛰쳐나와야 했고, 나오자마자 열에 아홉은 그 자리에서 죽임을 당했다. 반면에 집에 남아 있던 사람들은 문이 굳게 닫힌 채 불에 타 죽었고, 나중에 남은 숯덩이 뼈더미에서 얼마나 많은 사람이 죽었는지 아무도 알 수 없었다.

양저우시, 가정, 장인시의 학살에 대해 쓰여진 책들은 나중에 반청 작가들에 의해 태평천국의 난과 신해혁명을 앞두고 지지를 얻기 위해 재출판되었다.[9][10]

청군은 난징이 평화롭게 항복한 후 양저우에서 잡은 여성들을 원래 남편과 아버지에게 돈을 받고 돌려보냈는데, 이 여성들을 도시로 몰아넣고 머리에 몸값 가격을 표시한 표를 달고 심하게 채찍질했다.[11]

원명청대에 양저우에는 학사모스크와 사이드 푸하딘의 묘와 같은 역사적인 모스크가 있는 회족 무슬림 공동체가 있었다.[12][13][14]

명청 교체기의 양저우 학살과 같은 잔학 행위에 대한 기록은 반청 신해혁명의 혁명가들이 만주족에 대한 학살을 부추기는 데 사용되었다.

각주

  1. “揚州十日記 - 维基文库，自由的图书馆”. 《zh.wikisource.org》. 2019년 4월 22일에 확인함.
  2. Antonia Finnane (2004). 《Speaking of Yangzhou: A Chinese City, 1550-1850》. Harvard University Asia Center. 453쪽. ISBN 978-0674013926.
  3. 谢国桢，《南明史略》，第72—73页
  4. 张德芳《〈扬州十日记〉辨误》，中华文史论丛，第368-370页
  5. Struve (1993) (note at p. 269), following a 1964 article by Zhang Defang, notes that the entire city's population at the time was not likely to be more than 300,000, and that of the entire Yangzhou Prefecture, 800,000.
  6. E.Backhouse and J.O.P. Bland, 'The Sack of Yang Chou-fu.' In Annals and Memoirs of the Court of Peking. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1914.
  7. "A Memoir of the Ten Days' Massacre at Yangchow." Trans. Lucien Mao. Tien-hsia Monthly 4, no. 5 (May 1937): 515-37.
  8. Struve, Lynn A., Voices from the Ming-Qing Cataclysm: China in Tigers' Jaws (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), pp.32-48
  9. 朱子素, 嘉定屠城紀略
  10. 韓菼, 江陰城守紀
  11. Yao, Wenxi (1993). Struve, Lynn A. (편집). 《Voices from the Ming-Qing Cataclysm: China in Tigers' Jaws》 illurat, reprint, revis판. Yale University Press. 65–66쪽. ISBN 0300075537.
  12. “Puhading Yuan in Yangzhou - Attraction | Frommer's”.
  13. “Xianhe Mosque in Yangzhou of Jiangsu, Muslim Mosque in Yangzhou”.
  14. “Puhading Cemetery, Yangzhou”.

Literature

  • Struve, Lynn A., Voices from the Ming-Qing Cataclysm: China in Tigers' Jaws, Publisher:Yale University Press, 1998, See pp. 32–48 for the translation of Wang Xiuchu's account.
  • 핀난, 안토니아, Speaking of Yangzhou: A Chinese City, 1550-1850, Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, 2004. See especially Chapter 4, "Yangzhou's Ten Days."
  • Wei, Minghua 伟明铧, 1994. “Shuo Ýangzhou shiri’”说扬州十日, in Wei Minghua, Yangzhou tanpian 扬州谈片 Beijing: Sanlian shudian.
  • Zarrow, Peter, 2004. “Historical Trauma: Anti-Manchuism and Memories of Atrocity in Late Qing China,” History and Memory, Vol. 16, No. 2, Special Issue: Traumatic Memory in Chinese History.
  • The Litigation Master and the Monkey King, Liu, Ken. In The Paper Menagerie and other stories. Publisher:Saga Press, 2016, ISBN 978-1-4814-2437-0. pages 363–388.

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Yangzhou massacre

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Yangzhou Massacre
Part of the Transition from Ming to Qing
An artist conception of the massacre from the late Qing dynasty
Native name揚州十日
LocationYangzhou
Date20 to 25~29 May 1645; 381 years ago
TargetCivilians and Ming forces
Attack type
Mass murder, looting and arson
Deaths800,000 (likely exaggerated)
PerpetratorsQing forces (including Han Eight Banners) under Dodo
MotiveResistance efforts led by the Ming official Shi Kefa
Yangzhou Massacre
Traditional Chinese揚州十日
Simplified Chinese扬州十日
Literal meaningTen Days of Yangzhou
Transcriptions

The Yangzhou Massacre refers to the mass killing of people in Yangzhou, China, in May, 1645. Commanded by the Manchu prince Dodo, following the collapse of the Ming dynasty, Qing dynasty forces carried out the attack on the port city and its inhabitants, defended by remaining southern Ming forces. The massacre itself lasted a total of six days, which afterwards the burning of bodies continued. [1] The Yangzhou Massacre served as a reminder to Ming loyalists of the threat to resisting Qing authority, and signals part of the transition from the Ming to the Qing.

Primary accounts

The massacre is described in a contemporary account, A Record of Ten Days in Yangzhou, by Wang Xiuchu. Due to the title of the account, the events are often referred to as a ten-day massacre, but the diary shows that the slaughter was over by the sixth day, when burial of bodies commenced.[1] According to Wang, the number of victims exceeded 800,000; that number is now disproven and considered by modern historians and researchers to be an extreme exaggeration.[2][3][4][5]

Wang Xiuchu's account has appeared in a number of English translations, including by Backhouse and Bland,[6] Lucien Mao,[7] and Lynn A. Struve. Following are excerpts from the account in the translation by Struve.[8]

Several dozen people were herded like sheep or goats. Any who lagged were flogged or killed outright. The women were bound together at the necks with a heavy rope—strung one to another like pearls. Stumbling with each step, they were covered with mud. Babies lay everywhere on the ground. The organs of those trampled like turf under horses' hooves or people's feet were smeared in the dirt, and the crying of those still alive filled the whole outdoors. Every gutter or pond we passed was stacked with corpses, pillowing each others arms and legs. Their blood had flowed into the water, and the combination of green and red was producing a spectrum of colours. The canals, too, had been filled to level with dead bodies.

Then fires started everywhere, and the thatched houses...caught fire and were soon engulfed in flames...Those who had hidden themselves beneath the houses were forced to rush out from the heat of the fire, and as soon as they came out, in nine cases out of ten, they were put to death on the spot. On the other hand, those who had stayed in the houses—were burned to death within the closely shuttered doors and no one could tell how many had died from the pile of charred bones that remained afterwards.

This account by Wang was not originally published during the Qing dynasty, but instead copies survived and made their way to Japan. [9]

Historical context

Fall of the Ming Dynasty

During the fall of the Ming dynasty, peasant leader Li Zicheng took the imperial capital of Beijing. At this time, as Li's peasant rebel army was advancing to the city, the last Ming emperor committed suicide as an alternative to being executed. [10]Li sent a messenger to Ming general Wu Sangui demanding his submission, but Wu, outraged at Li's army looting Beijing and also Li threatening his family, decided to support the Manchu prince-regent Dorgon instead. He opened the gates of Shanhai Pass to allow the Manchus in, beginning the transition from the Ming dynasty to the Qing dynasty.[9]

As the Qing dynasty fought Li Zicheng's peasant army, what remained of the Ming dynasty reestablished themselves in southern China as the Southern Ming, with Nanjing as the capital. After the Manchus emerged victorious, they pushed south towards the new capital, and the port city of Yangzhou fell under siege by May.[11]

The fight over Yangzhou

Yangzhou was defended by the Southern Ming court's minister of war, Shi Kefa, who refused to submit to the new Qing authority. Manchu Prince Dodo "ordered his men to take Yangzhou whatever the cost",[11] and according to primary sources, the fighting went on for six days.[11] Qing and Ming soldiers and Yangzhou citizens alike were killed, citizens' homes burned with refugees inside, women raped and killed in the streets, and bodies burned in piles.[11][9] The major defending commanders of the Ming, including Shi Kefa, were also executed by Qing forces.

The Yangzhou massacre served as punishment to the residents for the resistance efforts of the Ming, and warning to the rest of the population in Jiangnan of the consequences of participating in military activities and resisting the Qing invaders.

After the massacre

Qing soldiers ransomed women captured from Yangzhou back to their original husbands and fathers in Nanjing after Nanjing peacefully surrendered, corralling the women into the city and whipping them hard, with their hair containing a tag showing the price of the ransom.[12]

Despite the devastating losses, the city of Yangzhou did recover fairly quickly as a significant port on the Yangxi River, and regained its prosperity by the late 17th century, even acting as a frequent stop by the Kangxi Emperor on his southern tours. [11][9]

Books written about the massacres in Yangzhou, Jiading and Jiangyin were later republished by anti-Qing authors to win support in the lead up to the Taiping Rebellion and Xinhai Revolution.[13][14] Accounts of atrocities like the Yangzhou massacre during the transition from the Ming to Qing were used by revolutionaries in the anti-Qing Xinhai revolution to fuel massacres against Manchus. [11][10]

See also

References

  1.  "揚州十日記 - 维基文库，自由的图书馆". zh.wikisource.org. Retrieved 2019-04-22.
  2.  Antonia Finnane (2004). Speaking of Yangzhou: A Chinese City, 1550-1850. Harvard University Asia Center. p. 453. ISBN 978-0674013926.
  3.  谢国桢，《南明史略》，第72—73页
  4.  张德芳《〈扬州十日记〉辨误》，中华文史论丛，第368-370页
  5.  Struve (1993) (note at p. 269), following a 1964 article by Zhang Defang, notes that the entire city's population at the time was not likely to be more than 300,000, and that of the entire Yangzhou Prefecture, 800,000.
  6.  E.Backhouse and J.O.P. Bland, 'The Sack of Yang Chou-fu.' In Annals and Memoirs of the Court of Peking. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1914.
  7.  "A Memoir of the Ten Days' Massacre at Yangchow." Trans. Lucien Mao. Tien-hsia Monthly 4, no. 5 (May 1937): 515-37.
  8.  Struve, Lynn A., Voices from the Ming-Qing Cataclysm: China in Tigers' Jaws (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), pp.32-48
  9.  Buckley Ebrey, Patricia (1993). Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook (2nd ed.). Free Press. pp. 271–279.
  10.  Zarrow, Peter. "Anti-Manchuism and memories of atrocity in late Qing China". go.gale.com. Retrieved 2026-02-21.
  11.  Carter, James (2022-05-18). "The Yangzhou massacre of 1645". The China Project. Retrieved 2026-02-21.
  12.  Yao, Wenxi (1993). Struve, Lynn A. (ed.). Voices from the Ming-Qing Cataclysm: China in Tigers' Jaws (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Yale University Press. pp. 65–66. ISBN 0300075537.
  13.  朱子素, 嘉定屠城紀略
  14.  韓菼, 江陰城守紀

Literature

  • Struve, Lynn A., Voices from the Ming-Qing Cataclysm: China in Tigers' Jaws, Publisher:Yale University Press, 1998, See pp. 32–48 for the translation of Wang Xiuchu's account.
  • Finnane, Antonia, Speaking of Yangzhou: A Chinese City, 1550-1850, Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, 2004. See especially Chapter 4, "Yangzhou's Ten Days."
  • Wei, Minghua 伟明铧, 1994. “Shuo Ýangzhou shiri’”说扬州十日, in Wei Minghua, Yangzhou tanpian 扬州谈片 Beijing: Sanlian shudian.
  • Zarrow, Peter, 2004. “Historical Trauma: Anti-Manchuism and Memories of Atrocity in Late Qing China,”  History and Memory, Vol. 16, No. 2, Special Issue: Traumatic Memory in Chinese History.
  • The Litigation Master and the Monkey King, Liu, Ken. In The Paper Menagerie and other stories. Publisher:Saga Press, 2016, ISBN 978-1-4814-2437-0. pages 363–388.


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